| Occupation | RGeneral · General of Agile Cavalry NGeneral · Five Tiger General | Faction | Shu |
|---|---|---|---|
| Appears | RN | Biography in | Book of Shu |
| Born | R176 Unverified | Native place | Youfufeng Commandery Maoling County |
| Died | R222 Unverified | Place of death | |
| Existence | Historical | Mentions | R91 |
Ma Chao, courtesy name Mengqi, was a native of Maoling County in Right Fufeng. When his father Ma Teng entered the court as Minister of the Guards (weiwei), he took command of his father's personal troops (buqu), allied with Han Sui, and advanced as far as Tong Pass, but was heavily defeated by Cao Cao. Records, Shu 6 §25–27
He later attacked the commanderies and counties of Longshang and seized Jicheng, but was driven out and took refuge with Zhang Lu in Hanzhong; in the 19th year of Jian'an (214) he surrendered to Liu Bei, who was besieging Chengdu. He rose to General of Agile Cavalry and Governor of Liang Province, and died in the 2nd year of Zhangwu (222) at the age of forty-seven. Records, Shu 6 §28–31 · 33Records, Shu 2 §33
In his assessment, Chen Shou lamented that he had relied on the Rong tribes and trusted in his valor until he brought his clan to ruin, yet wrote that his escaping from dire straits to reach a state of peace was better. In the Romance he first appeared in Chapter 10 as a young general of seventeen and featured in 21 of its 120 chapters, and his name appeared in the titles of four chapters, among them Chapter 58, "Ma Mengqi Raises an Army to Avenge a Wrong," and Chapter 65, "Ma Chao Fights a Great Battle at Jiameng Pass." Records, Shu 6 §44Romance, Ch. 10 §10Romance, Ch. 58 §11Romance, Ch. 59 §10Romance, Ch. 64 §46Romance, Ch. 65 §17–20
His father Ma Teng rose up in the western region together with Han Sui and others at the end of Emperor Ling's reign. In the 3rd year of Chuping (192), when Han Sui and Ma Teng led their followers to Chang'an, the Han court made Han Sui General Who Guards the West (zhenxi jiangjun) and sent him back to Jincheng, and made Ma Teng General Who Conquers the West (zhengxi jiangjun) and stationed him at Mei County. Ma Teng later attacked Chang'an, was defeated, and withdrew to Liang Province. Records, Shu 6 §25
When the Colonel-Director of Retainers (sili xiaowei) Zhong Yao was pacifying Guanzhong and sent letters to the two men, Ma Teng sent Ma Chao to follow Zhong Yao in attacking Guo Yuan and Gao Gan at Pingyang, and Ma Chao's officer Pang De personally beheaded Guo Yuan. Later, when Ma Teng fell out with Han Sui and asked to return to the capital region, the court summoned Ma Teng and made him Minister of the Guards, and made Ma Chao Lieutenant General (pian jiangjun) and Marquis of a Chief Village (duting hou), giving him command of Ma Teng's personal troops. Records, Shu 6 §25–26
Having taken command of the troops, Ma Chao allied with Han Sui, joined hands with Yang Qiu, Li Kan, Cheng Yi and others, and advanced as far as Tong Pass. According to the Annals of Emperor Wu, this took place in the 16th year of Jian'an (211). In the 7th month Cao Cao set out west in person and encamped facing them across Tong Pass, then crossed the Yellow River to the north; before he had finished crossing, Ma Chao rushed at the boats and pressed the attack. Only when Colonel Ding Fei let loose oxen and horses to lure the enemy away was Cao Cao able to cross. Records, Shu 6 §27Records, Wei 1 §109–111
When Cao Cao met Han Sui and Ma Chao, each riding a single horse, to talk, Ma Chao, trusting in his strength, secretly meant to charge forward and seize Cao Cao, but when Xu Chu at Cao Cao's side glared at him, he did not dare to move. Using Jia Xu's plan, Cao Cao sowed discord between Ma Chao and Han Sui so that they came to suspect each other, then fought a decisive battle and beheaded Cheng Yi, Li Kan and others. Ma Chao and Han Sui fled to Liang Province. Records, Shu 6 §27Records, Wei 18 §53Records, Wei 1 §112–113
Ma Chao held out by relying on the various Rong tribes. Cao Cao pursued him as far as Anding but turned back east when trouble arose in the north, and Yang Fu told Cao Cao that Ma Chao had the valor of Han Xin and Qing Bu and had greatly won the hearts of the Qiang and Hu, so that unless strict precautions were taken, the commanderies of Longshang would no longer belong to the state. As predicted, Ma Chao led the Rong tribes to attack the commanderies and counties of Longshang, which all rose in response to him; he killed Wei Kang, Inspector of Liang Province, seized Jicheng, and took over his followers. Records, Shu 6 §28
Ma Chao styled himself General Who Conquers the West, acting as Governor of Bing Province and supervising the military affairs of Liang Province. Thereupon Wei Kang's former officials and people, Yang Fu, Jiang Xu, Liang Kuan, Zhao Qu and others, plotted together to attack Ma Chao. When Yang Fu and Jiang Xu raised troops at Lucheng, Ma Chao went out to attack them but could not take it, and meanwhile Liang Kuan and Zhao Qu shut the gates of Jicheng so that he could not get back in. The Biography of Yang Fu records that Ma Chao raided Licheng and seized Jiang Xu's mother, then killed her after she berated him, and the Annals of Emperor Wu record that in the 1st month of the 19th year of Jian'an (214) Zhao Qu, Yin Feng and others killed Ma Chao's wife and children and displayed their heads, whereupon Ma Chao fled to Hanzhong. Records, Shu 6 §29Records, Wei 25 §31Records, Wei 1 §136
Zhang Lu of Hanzhong was not a man with whom great plans could be made, and Ma Chao was inwardly despondent. Hearing that Liu Bei was besieging Liu Zhang at Chengdu, he secretly sent a letter asking to surrender. According to the Biography of Li Hui, Liu Bei sent Li Hui to Hanzhong to establish friendly ties with Ma Chao, and Ma Chao at last followed his orders. When Ma Chao led his troops straight to the foot of the city walls, the city shook with fear, and Liu Zhang promptly knocked his head to the ground and surrendered. Liu Bei made Ma Chao General Who Pacifies the West (pingxi jiangjun) with supervision over Linju and kept him Marquis of a Chief Village as before, and the Biography of the First Sovereign records that he made Guan Yu, Zhang Fei and Ma Chao his claws and fangs. Records, Shu 6 §29–30Records, Shu 13 §13Records, Shu 2 §33
In the 22nd year of Jian'an (217), when Liu Bei stationed Zhang Fei, Ma Chao, Wu Lan and others at Xiabian, Cao Cao sent Cao Hong to resist them, and in the 3rd month of the following year Cao Hong broke Wu Lan, whereupon Zhang Fei and Ma Chao fled to Hanzhong. In the 24th year of Jian'an (219), in the memorial in which the officials put Liu Bei forward as King of Hanzhong, Ma Chao, General Who Pacifies the West and Marquis of a Chief Village, headed the list of names. On becoming King of Hanzhong, Liu Bei made Ma Chao General of the Left (zuo jiangjun) and granted him the tally (jiajie). Records, Wei 1 §158 · 160Records, Shu 2 §38 · 40Records, Shu 6 §31
Peng Yang, discontented at being demoted to Administrator of Jiangyang, came to see Ma Chao and said that if Ma Chao took charge outside and he himself inside, the realm would not be hard to settle. Ma Chao, who had come over to the state after a life of wandering and was always uneasy and fearful, was greatly startled and made no reply; after Peng Yang left, he reported his words in full in a memorial, and Peng Yang was arrested. Records, Shu 10 §23–25
In the 1st year of Zhangwu (221) he was promoted to General of Agile Cavalry (piaoji jiangjun), acting as Governor of Liang Province, and his fief was raised to Marquis of Tai District (taixiang hou). The edict of appointment said that because his good faith was manifest in the northern lands and his might and martial valor shone together, the task was entrusted to him. Records, Shu 6 §31–32
He died in the 2nd year of Zhangwu (222) at the age of forty-seven. In a memorial submitted as he neared death, he said that his clan of over two hundred had almost all been killed by Mengde, that only his younger cousin Ma Dai remained, and that he earnestly entrusted to the emperor the man who would carry on his family's sacrifices. He was posthumously titled Marquis Wei, and his son Ma Cheng succeeded him. Ma Dai reached the rank of General Who Pacifies the North and was advanced to Marquis of Chencang, and Ma Chao's daughter married Liu Li, Prince of Anping. The Biography of the Later Sovereign records that the posthumous titles of Guan Yu, Zhang Fei, Ma Chao and others were conferred in the 9th month of the 3rd year of Jingyao (260). Records, Shu 6 §33Records, Shu 3 §40
In his assessment, Chen Shou wrote that it was a pity that Ma Chao had relied on the Rong tribes and trusted in his valor until he brought his clan to ruin, yet asked whether his being able to escape from dire straits and reach a state of peace was not better after all. Records, Shu 6 §44
He first appeared in Chapter 10 of the Romance, when Ma Teng and Han Sui set out to attack Li Jue and Guo Si. A young general of seventeen with a face like jade and eyes like shooting stars, he unhorsed Wang Fang with a single thrust of his spear, and when Li Meng came after him, he twisted his body to dodge the spear and captured him. When the army withdrew, he fought to the death in the rear and drove off Zhang Ji. Romance, Ch. 10 §9–11 · 13
In Chapter 57, when Cao Cao killed Ma Teng, whom he had summoned to Xuchang, together with his son Ma Xiu, Ma Chao in Chapter 58 heard the news from his cousin Ma Dai, who had fled to him, and wept bitterly. Raising troops together with Han Sui, he took Chang'an through Pang De's plan and routed Cao Cao at Tong Pass. At the cries of "The one in the red robe is Cao Cao!" and "The one with the long beard is Cao Cao!", Cao Cao threw off his robe and cut off his beard with a sword as he fled, and Ma Chao, in pursuit, was blocked by Cao Hong. Romance, Ch. 57 §42 · 52Romance, Ch. 58 §8–9 · 11–13 · 15–18 · 28–33
In Chapter 59 he called out the "Tiger Fool" and fought Xu Chu. When two bouts of over a hundred rounds each brought no decision, Xu Chu flung off his helmet and armor and came out bare-bodied, and the two fought on horseback until their spear shafts broke. When, by Jia Xu's plan, Cao Cao sent Han Sui a letter with words blotted out and altered, Ma Chao came to suspect Han Sui, and when Han Sui decided to go over to Cao Cao, Ma Chao burst into his tent and cut off Han Sui's left hand with his sword. He was then heavily defeated and fled. Romance, Ch. 59 §9–11 · 23–26 · 29–32 · 37
In Chapter 64, a little over two years after entering the lands of the Qiang, he seized the prefectures and commanderies of Longxi, and when Wei Kang opened the city gates and surrendered, Ma Chao, saying he was not sincere, beheaded him together with his household of more than forty. But Yang Fu and Jiang Xu raised troops, and at Jicheng, Liang Kuan and Zhao Qu beheaded Ma Chao's wife, Lady Yang, and his three young sons on the city wall and threw them down. Ma Chao killed Jiang Xu's aged mother at Licheng and fled to Zhang Lu in Hanzhong. Romance, Ch. 64 §33–34 · 41 · 43–45 · 48
In Chapter 65, on Zhang Lu's orders, he attacked Jiameng Pass and fought Zhang Fei in two bouts of over a hundred rounds each by day, then went on fighting into the night by torchlight. When, by Zhuge Liang's plan, Yang Song took bribes and drove a wedge between Zhang Lu and Ma Chao, Ma Chao heeded the persuasion of Li Hui, who came to see him, and went over to Liu Bei. Beneath the walls of Chengdu he urged Liu Zhang to surrender, and Liu Bei made him General Who Pacifies the West. Romance, Ch. 65 §1 · 15–20 · 24–28 · 32–36 · 38 · 47
In Chapter 73 he was appointed one of the Five Tiger Generals together with Guan Yu, Zhang Fei, Zhao Yun and Huang Zhong, and in Chapter 79 he sounded out Peng Yang's true intentions and reported them to Liu Bei. In Chapter 85 Zhuge Liang, saying that the Qiang regarded Ma Chao as a divinely mighty heavenly general, had him guard Xiping Pass, and in Chapter 87 too Ma Chao was said to be guarding the passes of Hanzhong. In Chapter 92 Zhuge Liang, setting out on the northern campaign, passed Ma Chao's tomb at Mianyang, had his younger brother Ma Dai put on mourning dress, and offered sacrifices in person. Romance, Ch. 73 §9Romance, Ch. 79 §22–24Romance, Ch. 85 §43Romance, Ch. 87 §4Romance, Ch. 92 §1
First appearance: In Chapter 10 of the Romance, the seventeen-year-old Ma Chao crushed Wang Fang and Li Meng, generals of Li Jue and Guo Si. The Records' Biography of Ma Chao has only Ma Teng's failed attack on Chang'an and does not mention Ma Chao there; his first recorded deed is following Zhong Yao to attack Guo Yuan and Gao Gan. Romance, Ch. 10 §10–11Records, Shu 6 §25–26
Why he raised troops: In Chapters 57–58 of the Romance, Ma Chao raised troops to avenge his father after Cao Cao killed Ma Teng. In the Records, Ma Chao took command of Ma Teng's personal troops and allied with Han Sui while Ma Teng was at court as Minister of the Guards, and in the memorial Ma Chao submitted before his death he said that over two hundred of his clan had almost all been killed by Mengde. Romance, Ch. 57 §52Romance, Ch. 58 §9–11Records, Shu 6 §26–27 · 33
Cao Cao's beard: In Chapter 58 of the Romance, Cao Cao, pursued by Ma Chao, threw off his robe and cut off his beard. In the Records, when Ma Chao rushed at the boats as Cao Cao was crossing the Yellow River, Ding Fei let loose oxen and horses to lure the enemy away, and Xu Chu raised a saddle to shield Cao Cao. Neither the Annals of Emperor Wu nor the other biography recording this battle contains a scene of cutting off the beard. Romance, Ch. 58 §28–30Records, Wei 1 §111Records, Wei 18 §52
The duel with Xu Chu: In Chapter 59 of the Romance, Ma Chao and Xu Chu fought, with Xu Chu going so far as to strip bare. In the Records, when Cao Cao met Han Sui and Ma Chao, each riding a single horse, Xu Chu glared at Ma Chao and Ma Chao did not dare to move. Romance, Ch. 59 §9–11Records, Shu 6 §27Records, Wei 18 §53
Han Sui's left hand: In Chapter 59 of the Romance, Ma Chao cut off Han Sui's left hand with his sword. In the Records' Annals of Emperor Wu, after Cao Cao's sowing of discord made them suspect each other, they were heavily defeated in battle, and Han Sui and Ma Chao fled to Liang Province together. Romance, Ch. 59 §32Records, Wei 1 §113
The death of Wei Kang: In Chapter 64 of the Romance, Ma Chao beheaded Wei Kang, who had surrendered, together with his household of more than forty. The Records' Biography of Ma Chao states only that Ma Chao killed Wei Kang, while the Biography of Yang Fu records that when the Inspector and the Administrator opened the city gates and welcomed Ma Chao in, Ma Chao had Zhang Lu's general Yang Ang kill the two of them. Romance, Ch. 64 §34Records, Shu 6 §28Records, Wei 25 §28
Jiameng Pass: In Chapter 65 of the Romance, Ma Chao, as Zhang Lu's general, fought Zhang Fei day and night at Jiameng Pass before going over to Liu Bei. The Records' Biography of Ma Chao has no battle at Jiameng Pass; disappointed in Zhang Lu, Ma Chao first secretly sent a letter asking to surrender and went straight to the foot of the walls of Chengdu. Romance, Ch. 65 §17–20Records, Shu 6 §24–33 · 29–30
The Five Tiger Generals: In Chapter 73 of the Romance, Liu Bei as King of Hanzhong appointed Ma Chao one of the Five Tiger Generals together with Guan Yu, Zhang Fei, Zhao Yun and Huang Zhong. In the Records, Ma Chao was at this time made General of the Left and granted the tally. Romance, Ch. 73 §9Records, Shu 6 §31
The Peng Yang affair: In Chapter 79 of the Romance, Ma Chao's patrols caught Peng Yang's messenger on his way to Meng Da, and Ma Chao sounded out Peng Yang over wine. In the Records, the demoted Peng Yang came to Ma Chao of his own accord and raised the matter, and Ma Chao, startled, made no reply and then reported his words in a memorial. Romance, Ch. 79 §22–24Records, Shu 10 §24–25
When he died: In the Records, Ma Chao died in the 2nd year of Zhangwu (222). In the Romance he still appeared after Liu Bei's death, guarding Xiping Pass in Chapter 85 and the passes of Hanzhong in Chapter 87, and his death appeared only as a tomb in Chapter 92. Records, Shu 6 §33Romance, Ch. 85 §43Romance, Ch. 87 §4Romance, Ch. 92 §1
Written by 3KDEX (not yet reviewed) — The tags at the end of each paragraph link to the exact passage in the Records volume or Romance chapter it is based on.
The Records score (Chen Shou’s Records of the Three Kingdoms, main text) is the baseline. Each ability compares how the Romance redrew the same person, and the evidence from both sources explains the difference.
RFew direct records — estimated from the absence of any record of his use of men beyond his officer Pang De beheading Guo YuanShu 6 §26
NEmployed Liang Kuan and Zhao Qu on Yang Fu's recommendation and was betrayed; adopted Pang De's planCh. 64 §35Ch. 58 §16
RPut Cao Cao in peril at Tong Pass, took the commanderies and counties of Longshang, and made the city of Chengdu trembleWei 18 §52Shu 6 §28Shu 6 §30
NRouted Cao Cao's army at Tong Pass, forcing him to cut off his beard, and pressed them back to the moatCh. 58 §29Ch. 59 §12Ch. 72 §24
RValor like that of Han Xin and Qing Bu, judged to surpass others in heroic ferocity; trusting his strength, went for Cao CaoShu 6 §28Shu 6 §8Wei 18 §53
NCao Cao said he was no less than Lü Bu; fought Xu Chu and Zhang Fei for over a hundred rounds each without a decisionCh. 59 §9Ch. 59 §10Ch. 65 §9
RFell for Jia Xu's scheme to sow discord and was heavily defeated; assessment: trusted his valor and lost his clanShu 6 §27Shu 6 §44Shu 6 §29
NForesaw Cao Cao's river crossing, but fell for the scheme to sow discord and suspected Han SuiCh. 58 §39Ch. 59 §25Ch. 65 §35
RNo direct record — estimated from his holding the governorship of Liang Province with no record of governingShu 6 §31
NNo direct record — estimated from his seizing the prefectures and commanderies of Longxi with no record of governingCh. 64 §33
RGreatly won the hearts of the Qiang and Hu so that the commanderies and counties of Longshang rose for him; his good faith was manifest in the northShu 6 §28Shu 6 §32Wei 6 §31
NDeeply won the hearts of the Qiang; the troops of the Western Fan withdrew of their own accord on seeing himCh. 59 §39Ch. 86 §4Ch. 64 §33
RHis uprising brought his clan to destruction; said to have forsaken his father; killed Jiang Xu's motherShu 6 §44Wei 25 §29Wei 25 §31
NBeheaded the surrendered Wei Kang's family and slaughtered the people of the city; wept bitterly for his father's wrongful deathCh. 64 §34Ch. 64 §45Ch. 58 §9
RAssessment: escaped dire straits and reached a state of peace; secretly asked the First Sovereign to accept his surrenderShu 6 §44Shu 6 §29Shu 10 §25
NHesitated over the question of making peace, but on Li Hui's persuasion promptly went over to Liu BeiCh. 59 §16Ch. 65 §35Ch. 79 §24
RNo record of learning beyond Zhuge Liang's letter saying he combined civil and martial talentsShu 6 §8
NNo direct record — estimated from his being portrayed only through martial prowess, with no record of learningCh. 10 §10
RAllied with Han Sui, Yang Qiu and others and gained reinforcements from Zhang Lu, but failed to win over Yan WenShu 6 §27Wei 25 §27Wei 18 §84
NRaised troops with Han Sui's help; set swordsmen in ambush for Li Hui, who came to persuade himCh. 58 §12Ch. 65 §32
Records Romance Unverified No direct record; scored from their actions (evidence grade C)
3KDEX scoring — the Records use the main text of Chen Shou’s Records of the Three Kingdoms; the Romance uses the 120-chapter Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Click a source tag to open that passage in the reader.
AppearsNot present Chapter list →
| Parents | Ma Teng Novel & History |
|---|---|
| Siblings | Ma Xiu Novel & History, Ma Tie Romance |
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Includes automatic matching from Wikipedia infoboxes and source keywords (unverified).