Records of Wei 30: Accounts of the Wuhuan, Xianbei and Eastern Peoples

Records of Wei 30: Accounts of the Wuhuan, Xianbei and Eastern Peoples

The Wuhuan and the Xianbei

烏丸鮮卑

The Book of Documents records, “The Man and Yi barbarians trouble the Xia,” and the Book of Songs says, “The Xianyun are fierce indeed”; for a long time they have been a bane to the Central States. Since the Qin and Han, the Xiongnu had long been a scourge on the frontier. Emperor Xiaowu pursued affairs abroad against the barbarians of the four quarters—in the east pacifying the two Yue and Joseon, in the west attacking Ershi and Dayuan, and opening routes to Qiong, Zuo, and Yelang—yet these all lay beyond the outermost zone of submission and could not tip the balance for the Central States. The Xiongnu, however, pressed closest upon the Xia lands; when the Hu horsemen invaded southward, three frontiers faced the enemy. Therefore generals such as Wei Qing and Huo Qubing were repeatedly sent deep into the north on campaign, pursuing the Chanyu to the end and seizing his rich lands.

《書》載「蠻夷猾夏」，《詩》稱「玁狁孔熾」，久矣其爲中國患也。秦、漢以來，匈奴久爲邊害。孝武雖外事四夷，東平兩越、朝鮮，西討貳師、大宛，開邛苲、夜郎之道，然皆在荒服之外，不能爲中國輕重。而匈奴最逼於諸夏，胡騎南侵則三邊受敵，是以屢遣衛、霍之將，深入北伐，窮追單于，奪其饒衍之地。

Later they came to guard the frontier and call themselves vassals, and grew weaker with each generation. During the Jian'an era the Southern Chanyu Huchuquan came to court and was kept there to attend at the palace, while the Worthy King of the Right was sent to govern his state; the submission of the Xiongnu went beyond what it had been under the Han of old. The Wuhuan and the Xianbei, however, grew steadily stronger. Moreover, because of the disorder at the end of the Han, the Central States were beset with troubles and had no leisure for campaigns abroad, so these peoples were able to seize the lands south of the desert at will, raiding and ravaging towns and killing and carrying off the people, and the northern frontier continued to suffer from them.

後遂保塞稱籓，世以衰弱。建安中，呼廚泉南單于入朝，遂留內侍，使右賢王撫其國，而匈奴折節，過於漢舊。然烏丸、鮮卑稍更強盛，亦因漢末之亂，中國多事，不遑外討，故得擅漠南之地，寇暴城邑，殺略人民，北邊仍受其困。

It happened that Yuan Shao had annexed Hebei, and he took the Wuhuan of the Three Commanderies under his protection, favoring their famous kings and taking their elite horsemen into his service. Later Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi in turn fled to Tadun. Tadun was also fierce and warlike, and the elders of the frontier all compared him to Modu; relying on the remoteness and inaccessibility of his land, he dared to take in fugitives and made himself the strongest of all the barbarians. Taizu secretly led his army north, struck where he was not expected, and settled the matter in a single battle. The barbarians were cowed into submission and his might shook the northern lands. He then led the Wuhuan host to follow him on his campaigns, and the people of the frontier were able to live in peace.

會袁紹兼河北，乃撫有三郡烏丸，寵其名王而收其精騎。其後尚、熙又逃於蹋頓。蹋頓又驍武，邊長老皆比之冒頓，恃其阻遠，敢受亡命，以雄百蠻。太祖潛師北伐，出其不意，一戰而定之，夷狄懾服，威振朔土。遂引烏丸之衆服從征討，而邊民得用安息。

Later the Xianbei chieftain Kebineng again brought the barbarian tribes under his control and took over all the former lands of the Xiongnu; everything east of Yunzhong and Wuyuan as far as the Liao River became the Xianbei's domain. He repeatedly violated the frontier and raided the border, and You and Bing Provinces suffered from him. Tian Yu was besieged at Macheng, and Bi Gui was defeated north of Xing. During the Qinglong era the Emperor followed Wang Xiong's advice and sent an assassin to stab him to death. After that his tribes scattered and attacked one another; the strong fled far away and the weak asked to submit.

後鮮卑大人軻比能復制禦群狄，盡收匈奴故地，自雲中、五原以東抵遼水，皆爲鮮卑庭。數犯塞寇邊，幽、并苦之。田豫有馬城之圍，畢軌有陘北之敗。青龍中，帝乃聽王雄，遣劍客刺之。然後種落離散，互相侵伐，強者遠遁，弱者請服。

From then on the frontier was somewhat at peace and there was little trouble south of the desert; though there were still fairly frequent raids from time to time, they could no longer stir one another up. The Wuhuan and the Xianbei are what in ancient times were called the Eastern Hu. Their customs and earlier history have already been recorded by the compilers of the Han Records. Therefore only events from the end of the Han and the beginning of Wei onward are set out here, to complete the account of the changes among the barbarians of the four quarters.

由是邊陲差安，漠南少事，雖時頗鈔盜，不能復相扇動矣。烏丸、鮮卑即古所謂東胡也。其習俗、前事，撰《漢記》者已錄而載之矣。故但舉漢末魏初以來，以備四夷之變云。

The Wuhuan

烏丸¹

At the end of the Han, Qiuliju, chieftain of the Wuhuan of Liaoxi, had a following of more than five thousand tent households, and Nanlou, chieftain of the Wuhuan of Shanggu, had more than nine thousand; each styled himself king. Supuyan, chieftain of the Wuhuan of the Liaodong Dependent State, with more than a thousand tent households, styled himself King Qiao, and Wuyan, chieftain of the Wuhuan of Youbeiping, with more than eight hundred, styled himself King Hanlu. All of them were resourceful, brave, and strong. Zhang Chun, Prefect of Zhongshan, rebelled and joined Qiuliju's host, calling himself the King Who Fills Heaven and Brings Peace; he became commander-in-chief of the Wuhuan of the Three Commanderies and raided the four provinces of Qing, Xu, You, and Ji, killing and carrying off officials and people.

漢末，遼西烏丸大人丘力居，衆五千餘落，上谷烏丸大人難樓，衆九千餘落，各稱王，而遼東屬國烏丸大人蘇僕延，衆千餘落，自稱峭王，右北平烏丸大人烏延，衆八百餘落，自稱汗魯王，皆有計策勇健。中山太守張純叛入丘力居衆中，自號彌天安定王，爲三郡烏丸元帥，寇略青、徐、幽、冀四州，殺略吏民。

At the end of Emperor Ling's reign, Liu Yu was made Imperial Protector of the province; he recruited Hu to behead Zhang Chun, and the northern province was at last pacified. Later Qiuliju died. His son Louban was young, and his nephew Tadun, who had military talent, succeeded in his place and took command of the tribes of all three kings; the whole host followed his orders. When Yuan Shao and Gongsun Zan fought battle after battle without a decision, Tadun sent envoys to Yuan Shao seeking a marriage alliance and helped him attack Gongsun Zan, defeating him. Yuan Shao, forging an imperial decree, granted seals and ribbons to Tadun, King Qiao, and King Hanlu, making all of them Chanyu.

靈帝末，以劉虞爲州牧，募胡斬純首，北州乃定。後丘力居死，子樓班年小，從子蹋頓有武略，代立，總攝三王部，衆皆從其教令。袁紹與公孫瓚連戰不決，蹋頓遣使詣紹求和親，助紹擊瓚，破之。紹矯制賜蹋頓、難峭王、汗魯王印綬，皆以爲單于。¹

Later, when Louban grew up, King Qiao led his tribespeople in honoring Louban as Chanyu, with Tadun as king; but it was still Tadun who devised most of the plans. Yan Rou of Guangyang had been carried off among the Wuhuan and Xianbei in his youth and was trusted and followed by those peoples. Using a Xianbei host, Yan Rou killed Xing Ju, the Colonel of the Wuhuan, and took his place; Yuan Shao favored and comforted him in order to keep the northern frontier at peace. Later, when Yuan Shang was defeated, he fled to Tadun and, relying on his strength, plotted once again to take Ji Province.

後樓班大，峭王率其部衆奉樓班爲單于，蹋頓爲王。然蹋頓多畫計策。廣陽閻柔，少沒烏丸、鮮卑中，爲其種所歸信。柔乃因鮮卑衆，殺烏丸校尉邢舉代之，紹因寵慰以安北邊。後袁尚敗奔蹋頓，憑其勢，復圖冀州。

When Taizu pacified Hebei, Yan Rou led the Xianbei and Wuhuan to submit to him, and so Taizu made Yan Rou Colonel, still holding the Han envoy's tally and governing from Guangning as before. In the eleventh year of Jian'an, Taizu personally campaigned against Tadun at Liucheng. He moved his army in secret by a devious route, and the enemy only became aware of it when he was a little over a hundred li away. Yuan Shang and Tadun led their host to meet him in battle at Fancheng, with a great array of men and horses. Taizu climbed a height to look over the enemy lines and held his army back; seeing a slight disturbance in their ranks, he attacked and routed their host, beheading Tadun on the field. The dead covered the plain.

會太祖平河北，柔帥鮮卑、烏丸歸附，遂因以柔爲校尉，猶持漢使節，治廣甯如舊。建安十一年，太祖自征蹋頓於柳城，潛軍詭道，未至百餘里，虜乃覺。尚與蹋頓將衆逆戰於凡城，兵馬甚盛。太祖登高望虜陳，軍未進，觀其小動，乃擊破其衆，臨陳斬蹋頓首，死者被野。

Sufuwan, Louban, Wuyan, and others fled to Liaodong, where they were all beheaded and their heads were sent on. The remaining stragglers all surrendered. Together with the more than ten thousand tent households of Wuhuan under Yan Rou's command in You and Bing Provinces, all their clans were moved to live within the Central States, and their marquises, kings, chieftains, and tribespeople were led to take part in the campaigns. From this time the Wuhuan of the Three Commanderies became the most famous cavalry in the realm.

速附丸、樓班、烏延等走遼東，遼東悉斬，傳送其首。其餘遺迸皆降。及幽州、并州柔所統烏丸萬餘落，悉徙其族居中國，帥從其侯王大人種衆與征伐。由是三郡烏丸爲天下名騎。¹

The Xianbei

鮮卑

After the Xianbei Budugen came to power, his host gradually grew weaker, and his middle elder brother Fuluohan also separately held a host of several tens of thousands as a chieftain. During the Jian'an era, when Taizu pacified You Province, Budugen, Kebineng, and others presented tribute through Yan Rou, the Colonel of the Wuhuan. Later Nengchendi and others of the Wuhuan of Dai Commandery rebelled and asked to attach themselves to Fuluohan, and Fuluohan led more than ten thousand horsemen to meet them. When they reached Sanggan, Nengchendi and the others conferred; they thought that Fuluohan's tribe was lax in authority and discipline and feared that he could not help them, so they sent men to summon Kebineng instead.

鮮卑¹步度根旣立，衆稍衰弱，中兄扶羅韓亦別擁衆數萬爲大人。建安中，太祖定幽州，步度根與軻比能等因烏丸校尉閻柔上貢獻。後代郡烏丸能臣氐等叛，求屬扶羅韓，扶羅韓將萬餘騎迎之。到桑乾，氐等議，以爲扶羅韓部威禁寬緩，恐不見濟，更遣人呼軻比能。

Kebineng promptly arrived with more than ten thousand horsemen, and they were to swear a covenant together. At the meeting Kebineng killed Fuluohan, and Fuluohan's son Xieguini and his tribespeople all came under Kebineng. Because he had killed Xieguini's father, Kebineng treated him especially well. Budugen resented Kebineng for this.

比能即將萬餘騎到，當共盟誓。比能便於會上殺扶羅韓，扶羅韓子泄歸泥及部衆悉屬比能。比能自以殺歸泥父，特又善遇之。步度根由是怨比能。

When Emperor Wen ascended the throne, Tian Yu became Colonel of the Wuhuan, holding the imperial tally and also supervising the Xianbei, and was garrisoned at Changping. Budugen sent envoys to present horses, and the Emperor made him a king. Later Budugen and Kebineng attacked each other many times, and Budugen's tribespeople gradually became few and weak, so he led his host of more than ten thousand tent households to hold Taiyuan and Yanmen Commanderies. Budugen then sent a man to summon Xieguini, saying, “Your father was killed by Kebineng, yet instead of thinking of revenge you have attached yourself to your enemy's house.

文帝踐阼，田豫爲烏丸校尉，持節并護鮮卑，屯昌平。步度根遣使獻馬，帝拜爲王。後數與軻比能更相攻擊，步度根部衆稍寡弱，將其衆萬餘落保太原、鴈門郡。步度根乃使人招呼泄歸泥曰：「汝父爲比能所殺，不念報仇，反屬怨家。

Though he treats you generously now, it is a scheme to kill you. You would do better to come back to me. You and I are of the same flesh and blood, the closest of kin; how could I be the same as your enemy?” As a result Xieguini led his tribe and fled back to Budugen; Kebineng pursued them but could not catch up. In the fifth year of Huangchu, Budugen came to the palace to present tribute and was richly rewarded. From then on he devoted himself wholeheartedly to guarding the frontier and did no raiding, but Kebineng's host grew ever stronger.

今雖厚待汝，是欲殺汝計也。不如還我，我與汝是骨肉至親，豈與仇等？」由是歸泥將其部落逃歸步度根，比能追之弗及。至黃初五年，步度根詣闕貢獻，厚加賞賜，是後一心守邊，不爲寇害，而軻比能衆遂彊盛。

When Emperor Ming took the throne, he was intent on pacifying and conciliating the barbarians so as to put an end to campaigns, and did no more than keep the two tribes loosely in hand. In the first year of Qinglong, Kebineng enticed Budugen into a close alliance; Budugen then led Xieguini and all his tribespeople to take refuge with Kebineng, and they raided Bing Province, killing and carrying off officials and people. The Emperor sent the General of Valiant Cavalry Qin Lang to campaign against them. Xieguini turned against Kebineng and surrendered with his tribespeople; he was made King Who Returns to Righteousness, granted banners, a curved canopy, and a band of drums and pipes, and allowed to live in Bing Province as before. Budugen was killed by Kebineng.

明帝即位，務欲綏和戎狄，以息征伐，羈縻兩部而已。至青龍元年，比能誘步度根深結和親，於是步度根將泄歸泥及部衆悉保比能，寇鈔并州，殺略吏民。帝遣驍騎將軍秦朗征之，歸泥叛比能，將其部衆降，拜歸義王，賜幢麾、曲蓋、鼓吹，居并州如故。步度根爲比能所殺。

Kebineng

軻比能

Kebineng was originally from a minor Xianbei tribe. Because he was brave and strong, judged by the law fairly and justly, and did not covet wealth, the host chose him as their chieftain. His tribe lived near the frontier, and ever since Yuan Shao had held Hebei, many Chinese had fled or defected to him; they taught him to make weapons, armor, and shields, and he learned a fair amount of writing. Thus in commanding his tribespeople he modeled himself on the Central States: when going out and returning or hunting, he set up banners and flags, and advanced and withdrew to the beat of drums. During the Jian'an era he presented tribute through Yan Rou.

軻比能本小種鮮卑，以勇健，斷法平端，不貪財物，衆推以爲大人。部落近塞，自袁紹據河北，中國人多亡叛歸之，教作兵器鎧楯，頗學文字。故其勒御部衆，擬則中國，出入弋獵，建立旌麾，以鼓節爲進退。建安中，因閻柔上貢獻。

When Taizu went west to campaign in Guanzhong, Tian Yin rebelled in Hejian, and Kebineng led more than three thousand horsemen to follow Yan Rou and crush Tian Yin. Later, when the Wuhuan of Dai Commandery rebelled, Kebineng again helped them in their raiding. Taizu made Cao Zhang, Marquis of Yanling, General of Valiant Cavalry and sent him north on campaign, and he inflicted a great defeat on them. Kebineng fled beyond the frontier, but later resumed sending tribute. At the beginning of Yankang, Kebineng sent envoys to present horses, and Emperor Wen likewise made Kebineng King Who Adheres to Righteousness.

太祖西征關中，田銀反河間，比能將三千餘騎隨柔擊破銀。後代郡烏丸反，比能復助爲寇害，太祖以鄢陵侯彰爲驍騎將軍，北征，大破之。比能走出塞，後復通貢獻。延康初，比能遣使獻馬，文帝亦立比能爲附義王。

In the second year of Huangchu, Kebineng released more than five hundred families of Wei people who were living among the Xianbei and sent them back to live in Dai Commandery. The next year Kebineng led more than three thousand horsemen, including the sons of his tribal chieftains and Xiuwulu and others of the Wuhuan of Dai Commandery, driving over seventy thousand head of cattle and horses to trade at the border markets, and sent more than a thousand families of Wei people to live in Shanggu. Later he quarreled with Suli, chieftain of the Eastern Xianbei, and with Budugen, and the three tribes attacked one another in turn.

黃初二年，比能出諸魏人在鮮卑者五百餘家，還居代郡。明年，比能帥部落大人小子代郡烏丸脩武盧等三千餘騎，驅牛馬七萬餘口交市，遣魏人千餘家居上谷。後與東部鮮卑大人素利及步度根三部爭鬪，更相攻擊。

Tian Yu reconciled them so that they would not invade one another. In the fifth year, Kebineng again attacked Suli, and Tian Yu led light cavalry straight forward to harass his rear. Kebineng sent Suonu, a minor leader of a separate band, to hold off Tian Yu; Tian Yu advanced, attacked, and routed him, and from this Kebineng became disaffected. He then wrote to Xianyu Fu, General Who Supports the State: “We barbarians do not know writing, and so the former Colonel Yan Rou vouched for me to the Emperor. Suli and I are enemies, and in a past year I attacked him, but Colonel Tian helped Suli.

田豫和合，使不得相侵。五年，比能復擊素利，豫帥輕騎徑進掎其後。比能使別小帥瑣奴拒豫，豫進討，破走之，由是懷貳。乃與輔國將軍鮮于輔書曰：「夷狄不識文字，故校尉閻柔保我於天子。我與素利爲讎，往年攻擊之，而田校尉助素利。

When I went into battle I sent Suonu, but when I heard Your Excellency was coming, I immediately withdrew my army. Budugen has raided again and again and also killed my younger brother, yet he falsely accuses me of raiding. Though we barbarians do not know ritual and righteousness, my brothers, sons, and grandsons have received seals and ribbons from the Emperor. Even cattle and horses know good water and pasture—how much more so I, who have a human heart! I ask you, General, to vouch for me and make my case clear to the Emperor.” Xianyu Fu received the letter and reported it to the Emperor, and the Emperor again had Tian Yu summon and receive him and set him at ease.

我臨陣使瑣奴往，聞使君來，即便引軍退。步度根數數鈔盜，又殺我弟，而誣我以鈔盜。我夷狄雖不知禮義，兄弟子孫受天子印綬，牛馬尚知美水草，況我有人心邪！將軍當保明我於天子。」輔得書以聞帝，帝復使豫招納安慰。

Kebineng's host thus grew strong, with more than a hundred thousand mounted archers. Whenever they raided and took goods, he divided them evenly, deciding everything on the spot and never keeping anything for himself; therefore his host would fight to the death for him, and the chieftains of the other tribes all respected and feared him. Even so, he never matched Tanshihuai.

比能衆遂彊盛，控弦十餘萬騎。每鈔畧得財物，均平分付，一決目前，終無所私，故得衆死力，餘部大人皆敬憚之，然猶未能及檀石槐也。

In the second year of Taihe, Tian Yu sent the interpreter Xia She to the tribe of Kebineng's son-in-law Yuzhujian, and Xia She was killed by Yuzhujian. That autumn Tian Yu led Putou and Xieguini of the Western Xianbei beyond the frontier to punish Yuzhujian, and inflicted a great defeat on him. On his return, when he reached Macheng, Kebineng personally led thirty thousand horsemen and besieged Tian Yu for seven days. Yan Zhi, Prefect of Shanggu, was Yan Rou's younger brother and had long been trusted by the Xianbei. Yan Zhi went and reasoned with them, and they immediately lifted the siege and left.

太和二年，豫遣譯夏舍詣比能女壻鬱築鞬部，舍爲鞬所殺。其秋，豫將西部鮮卑蒲頭、泄歸泥出塞討鬱築鞬，大破之。還至馬城，比能自將三萬騎圍豫七日。上谷太守閻志，柔之弟也，素爲鮮卑所信。志往解喻，即解圍去。

Later Wang Xiong, Inspector of You Province, also took on the post of Colonel and won them over with kindness and good faith. Kebineng came to the frontier several times to pledge submission and went to the provincial seat to present tribute. In the first year of Qinglong, Kebineng enticed Budugen to join him and made him rebel against Bing Province; he formed an alliance with him and personally led ten thousand horsemen to meet Budugen's dependents and baggage north of Xing. Bi Gui, Inspector of Bing Province, sent the generals Su Shang, Dong Bi, and others to attack them. Kebineng sent his son at the head of his horsemen to join battle with Su Shang and the others at Loufan, and Su Shang and Dong Bi were killed on the field. In the course of the third year, Wang Xiong sent a brave warrior, Han Long, to stab Kebineng to death, and Kebineng's younger brother was set up in his place.

後幽州刺史王雄并領校尉，撫以恩信。比能數款塞，詣州奉貢獻。至青龍元年，比能誘納步度根，使叛并州，與結和親，自勒萬騎迎其累重於陘北。并州刺史畢軌遣將軍蘇尚、董弼等擊之，比能遣子將騎與尚等會戰於樓煩，臨陣害尚、弼。至三年中，雄遣勇士韓龍刺殺比能，更立其弟。

Suli, Mijia, and Jueji were all chieftains living beyond the frontier of Liaoxi, Youbeiping, and Yuyang. Being far away, at first they caused no trouble on the frontier, yet their tribespeople outnumbered Kebineng's. During the Jian'an era they presented tribute through Yan Rou and opened border trade, and Taizu memorialized to honor them all as kings. When Jueji died, his son Shamohan was in turn made King Who Is Friendly to Han. At the beginning of Yankang they each again sent envoys to present horses. Emperor Wen made Suli and Mijia Kings Who Return to Righteousness.

素利、彌加、厥機皆爲大人，在遼西、右北平、漁陽塞外，道遠初不爲邊患，然其種衆多於比能。建安中，因閻柔上貢獻，通市，太祖皆表寵以爲王。厥機死，又立其子沙末汗爲親漢王。延康初，又各遣使獻馬。文帝立素利、彌加爲歸義王。

Suli and Kebineng attacked each other in turn. In the second year of Taihe Suli died. Since his son was young, his younger brother Chenglugui was made king to govern his host in his place.

素利與比能更相攻擊。太和二年，素利死。子小，以弟成律歸爲王，代攝其衆。

The Eastern Yi

東夷

The Book of Documents says, “In the east it reaches the sea; in the west it extends to the Flowing Sands.” The system of the nine zones of submission can be spoken of. But of the lands beyond the wild regions, reached only through repeated interpretation and beyond where footsteps and cart tracks go, no one knew the customs of those states or their distant places. From the time of Yu to the Zhou, the Western Rong offered white jade rings and among the Eastern Yi the Sushen brought tribute, but they came only once in many generations, so great was their distance. Then the Han sent Zhang Qian as envoy to the Western Regions; he traced the Yellow River to its source and passed through many states, and at length a Protector General was established to oversee them all. After that the affairs of the Western Regions were fully preserved, and so the historians were able to record them in detail.

《書》稱「東漸於海，西被於流沙」。其九服之制，可得而言也。然荒域之外，重譯而至，非足跡車軌所及，未有知其國俗殊方者也。自虞暨周，西戎有白環之獻，東夷有肅慎之貢，皆曠世而至，其遐遠也如此。及漢氏遣張騫使西域，窮河源，經歷諸國，遂置都護以總領之，然後西域之事具存，故史官得詳載焉。

When Wei arose, although not all of the Western Regions came, their great states—Qiuci, Yutian, Kangju, Wusun, Shule, the Yuezhi, Shanshan, Jushi, and the like—sent tribute to court every year without fail, much as in the days of the Han. Gongsun Yuan, however, following his father and grandfather, held Liaodong for three generations, and because it was a remote region the Emperor had entrusted him with affairs beyond the sea; he then cut off the Eastern Yi so that they could not communicate with the Xia lands. During the Jingchu era a great army was raised to put Gongsun Yuan to death, and troops were also sent secretly across the sea by ship to take the commanderies of Lelang and Daifang. After that all was quiet beyond the sea, and the Eastern Yi submitted.

魏興，西域雖不能盡至，其大國龜茲、于寘、康居、烏孫、疏勒、月氏、鄯善、車師之屬，無歲不奉朝貢，略如漢氏故事。而公孫淵仍父祖三世有遼東，天子爲其絕域，委以海外之事，遂隔斷東夷，不得通於諸夏。景初中，大興師旅，誅淵，又潛軍浮海，收樂浪、帶方之郡，而後海表謐然，東夷屈服。

Later, when Goguryeo rebelled, a detached force was again sent to punish it. It pursued them to the farthest reaches, crossing the lands of the Wuhuan and Gudu, passing through Okjeo, and treading the court of the Sushen, until it looked out over the great sea to the east. The elders there said that there were people with strange faces near the place where the sun rises. The expedition then surveyed all the states and gathered their laws and customs, distinguishing the large from the small, each with its own name, so that they could be recorded in detail. Though these are the lands of barbarians, the forms of the ritual vessels are still preserved among them. When the Central States lose the rites, they seek them among the barbarians of the four quarters—this is indeed trustworthy. Therefore their states are here set out in order and their similarities and differences listed, to supplement what earlier histories left out.

其後高句麗背叛，又遣偏師致討，窮追極遠，逾烏丸、骨都，過沃沮，踐肅慎之庭，東臨大海。長老說有異面之人，近日之所出，遂周觀諸國，采其法俗，小大區別，各有名號，可得詳紀。雖夷狄之邦，而俎豆之象存。中國失禮，求之四夷，猶信。故撰次其國，列其同異，以接前史之所未備焉。

Buyeo

夫餘

Buyeo lay north of the Great Wall, a thousand li from Xuantu. To the south it bordered Goguryeo, to the east the Yilou, and to the west the Xianbei; to the north was the Ruo River. It was about two thousand li square and had eighty thousand households. Its people were settled, with palaces, granaries and storehouses, and prisons. There were many hills and broad marshes, and of all the lands of the Eastern Yi it was the most level and open. The soil was suited to the five grains, but the five fruits did not grow there. Its people were large and sturdy, strong and brave by nature, yet cautious and honest, and they did not go raiding.

夫餘在長城之北，去玄菟千里，南與高句麗，東與挹婁，西與鮮卑接，北有弱水，方可二千里。戶八萬，其民土著，有宮室、倉庫、牢獄。多山陵、廣澤，於東夷之域最平敞。土地宜五穀，不生五果。其人粗大，性強勇謹厚，不寇鈔。

The state had a ruler, and all its offices were named after the six domestic animals: there were the Maga (Horse Ga), Uga (Ox Ga), Jeoga (Pig Ga), and Guga (Dog Ga), the Daesa, the Daesaja, and the Saja. The towns and villages had powerful families, and those called lower households all served as their bondservants. The Ga each separately governed the roads leading out in the four directions; the greater among them ruled several thousand families and the lesser several hundred. In eating and drinking they all used ritual vessels; at assemblies they bowed with the wine cup and washed the cup, and bowed and yielded to one another as they went up and down the steps. In the first month of the Yin calendar they sacrificed to Heaven, holding a great assembly of the whole state with days of feasting, drinking, singing, and dancing; this was called Yeonggo (Welcoming the Drums). At this time they judged criminal cases and released prisoners.

國有君王，皆以六畜名官，有馬加、牛加、豬加、狗加、大使、大使者、使者。邑落有豪民，名下戶皆爲奴僕。諸加別主四出，道大者主數千家，小者數百家。食飲皆用俎豆，會同、拜爵、洗爵，揖讓升降。以殷正月祭天，國中大會，連日飲食歌舞，名曰迎鼓，於是時斷刑獄，解囚徒。

At home they favored white clothing, wearing robes with broad sleeves of white cloth and trousers, and leather shoes. When going abroad they favored silks, embroidery, brocade, and woolens, and the chieftains added furs of fox, wildcat, white monkey fur, and black sable, and adorned their hats with gold and silver. When interpreters conveyed messages, they all knelt with their hands on the ground and spoke in low voices. Punishments were strict and swift: a murderer was put to death and his family was confiscated as slaves. A thief had to repay twelvefold. Adultery between men and women and jealousy in wives were both punished by death. Jealousy was especially hated; after the woman was killed, her corpse was exposed on a mountain in the south of the country until it rotted away.

在國衣尚白，白布大袂，袍、袴，履革鞜。出國則尚繒繡錦罽，大人加狐狸、狖白、黑貂之裘，以金銀飾帽。譯人傳辭，皆跪，手據地竊語。用刑嚴急，殺人者死，沒其家人爲奴婢。竊盜一責十二。男女淫，婦人妒，皆殺之。尤憎妒，已殺，屍之國南山上，至腐爛。

If the woman's family wished to recover the body, they had to deliver cattle and horses before it was given to them. When an elder brother died, the younger took his brother's wife, the same custom as among the Xiongnu. The people of that state were good at raising livestock and produced fine horses, red jade, sable and monkey pelts, and beautiful pearls; the largest pearls were the size of wild jujubes. They used bows and arrows, swords, and spears as weapons, and every household had its own armor and arms. The elders of the state said of themselves that they were exiles who had come in ancient times. Their walls and stockades were all built round, resembling prisons. When walking on the road, day or night, old and young alike all sang, and the sound never ceased all day long.

女家欲得，輸牛馬乃與之。兄死妻嫂，與匈奴同俗。其國善養牲，出名馬、赤玉、貂狖、美珠。珠大者如酸棗。以弓矢刀矛爲兵，家家自有鎧仗。國之耆老自說古之亡人。作城柵皆員，有似牢獄。行道晝夜無老幼皆歌，通日聲不絕。

When there was a military matter they also sacrificed to Heaven, killing an ox and examining its hooves to divine good or ill fortune: if the hoof was split apart it was an ill omen, and if it was closed it was a good one. When an enemy came, the Ga fought in person, while the lower households all carried provisions to feed them. When someone died in the summer months, ice was always used. People were killed to accompany the dead in burial, sometimes numbering in the hundreds. Burials were lavish, with an outer coffin but no inner coffin.

有軍事亦祭天，殺牛觀蹄以占吉凶，蹄解者爲凶，合者爲吉。有敵，諸加自戰，下戶俱擔糧飲食之。其死，夏月皆用冰。殺人徇葬，多者百數。厚葬，有槨無棺。¹

Buyeo had originally been subordinate to Xuantu. At the end of the Han, Gongsun Du extended his power east of the sea and overawed the outer barbarians, and Wigutae, King of Buyeo, transferred his allegiance to Liaodong. At that time Goguryeo and the Xianbei were strong, and since Buyeo lay between these two barbarian peoples, Gongsun Du gave him a woman of his clan in marriage. When Wigutae died, Ganwigeo succeeded him. Ganwigeo had no legitimate son but had a son by a concubine, Mayeo. When Ganwigeo died, the Ga jointly set up Mayeo. The son of the Uga's elder brother, named Wigeo, became Daesa; he thought little of wealth and was generous in giving, so the people of the state rallied to him, and every year he sent envoys to the capital to present tribute.

夫餘本屬玄菟。漢末，公孫度雄張海東，威服外夷，夫餘王尉仇台更屬遼東。時句麗、鮮卑強，度以夫餘在二虜之間，妻以宗女。尉仇台死，簡位居立。無適子，有孽子麻餘。位居死，諸加共立麻餘。牛加兄子名位居，爲大使，輕財善施，國人附之，歲歲遣使詣京都貢獻。

During the Zhengshi era, when Guanqiu Jian, Inspector of You Province, attacked Goguryeo, he sent Wang Qi, Prefect of Xuantu, to Buyeo. Wigeo sent a Great Ga to welcome him outside the city and supplied the army with provisions. His youngest paternal uncle, the Uga, was disloyal, so Wigeo killed his uncle and his uncle's son, confiscated their property, and sent envoys to register it and deliver it to the authorities. By the old custom of Buyeo, whenever floods and droughts were out of season and the five grains did not ripen, the blame was laid on the king; some would say he should be replaced, others that he should be killed.

正始中，幽州刺史毌丘儉討句麗，遣玄菟太守王頎詣夫餘，位居遣大加郊迎，供軍糧。季父牛加有二心，位居殺季父父子，籍沒財物，遣使簿斂送官。舊夫餘俗，水旱不調，五穀不熟，輒歸咎於王，或言當易，或言當殺。

When Mayeo died, his son Uiryeo was six years old, and he was set up as king. In Han times the kings of Buyeo were buried in jade caskets, which were always deposited in advance with Xuantu Commandery; when a king died, the casket was fetched for his burial. When Gongsun Yuan was executed, there was still one jade casket in the storehouse of Xuantu. Today the storehouses of Buyeo hold jade disks, jade tablets, and jade ladles handed down over several generations and treasured as heirlooms; the elders say they were gifts to former rulers. The inscription on their seal reads “Seal of the King of Ye,” and the state has an old walled town called Ye City. Probably this was originally the land of the Ye and Maek, and the Buyeo came to rule among them; their calling themselves “exiles” is perhaps not without reason.

麻餘死，其子依慮年六歲，立以爲王。漢時，夫餘王葬用玉匣，常豫以付玄菟郡，王死則迎取以葬。公孫淵伏誅，玄菟庫猶有玉匣一具。今夫餘庫有玉璧、珪、瓚數代之物，傳世以爲寶，耆老言先代之所賜也。¹其印文言「濊王之印」，國有故城名濊城，蓋本濊貊之地，而夫餘王其中，自謂「亡人」，抑有也。²

Goguryeo

高句麗

Goguryeo lay a thousand li east of Liaodong. To the south it bordered Joseon and the Yemaek, to the east Okjeo, and to the north Buyeo. Its capital was below Wandu; the country was about two thousand li square and had thirty thousand households. It had many great mountains and deep valleys and no plains or marshes. The people made their homes along the mountains and valleys and drank from the streams. There were no good fields, and even with hard farming they could not fill their bellies. It was their custom to be sparing with food. They loved to build palaces and halls, and to the left and right of their dwellings they raised large buildings in which they sacrificed to ghosts and spirits; they also sacrificed to the Numinous Star and to the altars of soil and grain.

高句麗在遼東之東千里，南與朝鮮、濊貊，東與沃沮，北與夫餘接。都於丸都之下，方可二千里，戶三萬。多大山深谷，無原澤。隨山谷以爲居，食澗水。無良田，雖力佃作，不足以實口腹。其俗節食，好治宮室，於所居之左右立大屋，祭鬼神，又祀靈星、社稷。

Its people were fierce and hasty by nature and skilled at raiding. The state had a king, and its offices included the xiangjia, duilu, peizhe, guchujia, zhubu, youtaicheng, shizhe, and zaoyi xianren, each with its own grade from high to low. According to old sayings among the Eastern Yi, they were a separate branch of the Buyeo; in language and most other matters they largely resembled the Buyeo, but they differed in temperament and dress. Originally there were five clans: the Juannu division, the Juenu division, the Shunnu division, the Guannu division, and the Guilou division.

其人性凶急，善寇鈔。其國有王，其官有相加、對盧、沛者、古雛加、主簿、優台丞、使者、皁衣先人，尊卑各有等級。東夷舊語以爲夫餘別種，言語諸事，多與夫餘同，其性氣衣服有異。本有五族，有涓奴部、絕奴部、順奴部、灌奴部、桂婁部。

Originally the Juannu division provided the king, but it gradually weakened, and now the Guilou division has taken its place. In Han times they were granted drummers, pipers, and other musicians, and they regularly received court robes and headcloths from Xuantu Commandery, where the Magistrate of Gaogouli County kept their registers. Later they grew arrogant and unruly and no longer went to the commandery. Instead they built a small walled town on its eastern border, had the court robes and headcloths placed inside it, and came each year at the proper season to collect them. To this day the barbarians still call this town Zegoulou; goulou is the Goguryeo word for a walled town.

本涓奴部爲王，稍微弱，今桂婁部代之。漢時賜鼓吹技人，常從玄菟郡受朝服衣幘，高句麗令主其名籍。後稍驕恣，不復詣郡，於東界築小城，置朝服衣幘其中，歲時來取之，今胡猶名此城爲幘溝漊。溝漊者，句麗名城也。

In setting up offices, if there was a duilu they did not appoint a peizhe, and if there was a peizhe they did not appoint a duilu. Among the king's clan, the dajia were all styled guchujia. Because the Juannu division had originally ruled the state, although it no longer provided the king, its chief in the direct line could be styled guchujia, and it could also set up an ancestral temple and sacrifice to the Numinous Star and to the altars of soil and grain. The Juenu division had intermarried with the kings for generations, so its chiefs were given the title guchu. The various dajia also appointed their own shizhe and zaoyi xianren, whose names were all reported to the king. They were like the household retainers of ministers and grandees, and at assemblies, whether seated or standing, they could not take the same rank as the shizhe and zaoyi xianren of the royal house.

其置官，有對盧則不置沛者，有沛者則不置對盧。王之宗族，其大加皆稱古雛加。涓奴部本國主，今雖不爲王，適統大人，得稱古雛加，亦得立宗廟，祠靈星、社稷。絕奴部世與王婚，加古雛之號。諸大加亦自置使者、皁衣先人，名皆達於王，如卿大夫之家臣，會同坐起，不得與王家使者、皁衣先人同列。

The great households of the state did not farm; more than ten thousand people lived without working, and the lower households carried rice, grain, fish, and salt from afar to supply them. The people loved singing and dancing; in the towns and villages throughout the state, men and women gathered in crowds at nightfall to sing and make merry together. They had no large granaries; each household had its own small storehouse, called a fujing. The people prided themselves on cleanliness and were fond of brewing and storing liquor. When they knelt to bow, they stretched out one leg, unlike the Buyeo, and when they walked they always went at a run.

其國中大家不佃作，坐食者萬餘口，下戶遠擔米糧魚鹽供給之。其民喜歌舞，國中邑落，暮夜男女群聚，相就歌戲。無大倉庫，家家自有小倉，名之爲桴京。其人絜清自喜，喜藏釀。跪拜申一腳，與夫餘異，行步皆走。

They sacrificed to Heaven in the tenth month with a great assembly of the whole state, called Dongmeng. At these public gatherings they all wore brocade and embroidered clothing and adorned themselves with gold and silver. The dajia and zhubu wore on their heads a ze, which was like a headcloth but without the back part; the xiaojia wore a zhefeng, shaped like a conical cap. East of the state was a great cave called the Suixue. In the tenth month, at the great assembly of the state, they welcomed the Sui spirit and brought it back to a high place east of the state to sacrifice to it, setting a wooden Sui on the spirit's seat. There were no prisons; when someone committed a crime, the jia deliberated together and then put him to death, and his wife and children were confiscated as slaves.

以十月祭天，國中大會，名曰東盟。其公會，衣服皆錦繡金銀以自飾。大加主簿頭著幘，如幘而無餘，其小加著折風，形如弁。其國東有大穴，名隧穴，十月國中大會，迎隧神還于國東上祭之，置木隧於神坐。無牢獄，有罪諸加評議，便殺之，沒入妻子爲奴婢。

In their marriage custom, once the match had been agreed in words, the woman's family built a small house behind the main house, called the son-in-law's house. At dusk the bridegroom came to the door of the woman's family, announced his name, knelt and bowed, and begged to be allowed to spend the night with the woman. After he had done this two or three times, her parents at last allowed him to sleep in the small house, and money and silk were piled up beside it. Only when a child had been born and had grown up did he take his wife back to his own home. Their customs were licentious. As soon as a man and woman were married, they began little by little to make the clothes for their burial.

其俗作婚姻，言語已定，女家作小屋於大屋後，名婿屋，婿暮至女家戶外，自名跪拜，乞得就女宿，如是者再三，女父母乃聽使就小屋中宿，傍頓錢帛，至生子已長大，乃將婦歸家。其俗淫。男女已嫁娶，便稍作送終之衣。

They gave lavish burials, spending all their gold, silver, and wealth on sending off the dead; they piled up stones to make the burial mound and planted pines and cypresses in rows. Their horses were all small and suited to climbing mountains. The people were strong and practiced in warfare, and the Okjeo and the Eastern Ye were all subject to them. There were also the Small River Maek. When Goguryeo founded its state, it settled along a great river; north of Xi'anping County there was a small river that flowed south into the sea, and a separate branch of the Goguryeo founded a state along this small river, so they were called the Small River Maek. They produced fine bows, the so-called Maek bows.

厚葬，金銀財幣，盡於送死，積石爲封，列種松柏。其馬皆小，便登山。國人有氣力，習戰鬥，沃沮、東濊皆屬焉。又有小水貊。句麗作國，依大水而居，西安平縣北有小水，南流入海，句麗別種依小水作國，因名之爲小水貊，出好弓，所謂貊弓是也。

Wang Mang at first mobilized Goguryeo troops to attack the Hu. They did not want to go, and when they were forced to set out, they all deserted beyond the frontier and became bandits. Tian Tan, the Grand Governor of Liaoxi, pursued and attacked them and was killed by them. The provinces, commanderies, and counties laid the blame on Tao, Marquis of Goguryeo, but Yan You memorialized: “The Maek people have broken the law, but the crime did not originate with Tao, and he ought to be reassured and pacified. If we now recklessly charge him with a great crime, I fear they will end in open revolt.” Wang Mang would not listen and ordered Yan You by edict to attack them.

王莽初發高句麗兵以伐胡，不欲行，強迫遣之，皆亡出塞爲寇盜。遼西大尹田譚追擊之，爲所殺。州郡縣歸咎于句麗侯騊，嚴尤奏言：「貊人犯法，罪不起於騊，且宜安慰。今猥被之大罪，恐其遂反。」莽不聽，詔尤擊之。

Yan You lured Tao, Marquis of Goguryeo, to a meeting and beheaded him, sending his head to Chang'an. Wang Mang was delighted and proclaimed it throughout the realm, and he changed the name Goguryeo (Gaogouli, “High Gouli”) to Xiagouli, “Low Gouli.” At that time it was a marquisate; in the eighth year of Emperor Guangwu of Han, the King of Goguryeo sent an envoy with tribute, and this was the first time its ruler was styled king.

尤誘期句麗侯騊至而斬之，傳送其首詣長安。莽大悅，佈告天下，更名高句麗爲下句麗。當此時爲侯國，漢光武帝八年，高句麗王遣使朝貢，始見稱王。

Between the reigns of Emperors Shang and An, Gong, King of Goguryeo, repeatedly raided Liaodong, and Goguryeo was placed under Xuantu once more. Cai Feng, Prefect of Liaodong, and Yao Guang, Prefect of Xuantu, regarding Gong as a menace to their two commanderies, raised troops to attack him. Gong feigned surrender and asked for peace, and the two commanderies did not advance. Gong secretly sent troops to attack Xuantu; they burned Houcheng, entered Liaosui, and killed officials and commoners. Later Gong again invaded Liaodong; Cai Feng rashly led his officers and men in pursuit, but his army was defeated and he perished.

至殤、安之間，句麗王宮數寇遼東，更屬玄菟。遼東太守蔡風、玄菟太守姚光以宮爲二郡害，興師伐之。宮詐降請和，二郡不進。宮密遣軍攻玄菟，焚燒候城，入遼隧，殺吏民。後宮復犯遼東，蔡風輕將吏士追討之，軍敗沒。

When Gong died, his son Bogu succeeded him. Between the reigns of Emperors Shun and Huan, he again invaded Liaodong, raiding Xin'an and Juxiang; he also attacked Xi'anping, killed the Magistrate of Daifang on the road, and carried off the wife and children of the Prefect of Lelang. In the second year of Jianning under Emperor Ling, Geng Lin, Prefect of Xuantu, attacked him and took several hundred heads and captives; Bogu surrendered and was placed under Liaodong. During the Xiping era Bogu asked to be placed under Xuantu. When Gongsun Du held sway east of the sea, Bogu sent the dajia Youju, the zhubu Ranren, and others to help Gongsun Du attack the bandits of Fushan, and they defeated them.

宮死，子伯固立。順、桓之間，復犯遼東，寇新安、居鄉，又攻西安平，於道上殺帶方令，略得樂浪太守妻子。靈帝建寧二年，玄菟太守耿臨討之，斬首虜數百級，伯固降，屬遼東。熹平中，伯固乞屬玄菟。公孫度之雄海東也，伯固遣大加優居、主簿然人等助度擊富山賊，破之。

When Bogu died he left two sons: the elder, Baqi, and the younger, Yiyimo. Baqi was unworthy, so the people of the state jointly set up Yiyimo as king. From Bogu's time they had repeatedly raided Liaodong and had also taken in more than five hundred households of fugitive Hu. During the Jian'an era Gongsun Kang sent out an army to attack them, crushed their state, and burned their towns and villages. Baqi, resentful that as the elder brother he had not been made king, went with the Juannu jia, each leading more than thirty thousand people of the lower households, to surrender to Gongsun Kang, and then returned to live on the Feiliu River.

伯固死，有二子，長子拔奇，小子伊夷模。拔奇不肖，國人便共立伊夷模爲王。自伯固時，數寇遼東，又受亡胡五百餘家。建安中，公孫康出軍擊之，破其國，焚燒邑落。拔奇怨爲兄而不得立，與涓奴加各將下戶三萬餘口詣康降，還住沸流水。

The Hu who had submitted also rebelled against Yiyimo, so Yiyimo founded his state anew, and that is where it lies today. Baqi eventually went to Liaodong, but left a son behind in the state of Goguryeo; he is the present guchujia Bo Weiju. Afterward they attacked Xuantu again, and Xuantu and Liaodong struck them together and crushed them.

降胡亦叛伊夷模，伊夷模更作新國，今日所在是也。拔奇遂往遼東，有子留句麗國，今古雛加駮位居是也。其後復擊玄菟，玄菟與遼東合擊，大破之。

Yiyimo had no son; he had an affair with a woman of the Guannu division, who bore him a son named Weigong. When Yiyimo died, this son was set up as king; he is the present King of Goguryeo, Gong. His great-grandfather was named Gong; he could open his eyes and see as soon as he was born, and the people of the state loathed him. When he grew up he did indeed prove savage and cruel, raiding again and again, and the state was ravaged. The present king too could open his eyes and look at people the moment he fell to the ground at birth. In Goguryeo, resemblance is called wei; because he resembled his forebear, he was named Weigong.

伊夷模無子，淫灌奴部，生子名位宮。伊夷模死，立以爲王，今句麗王宮是也。其曾祖名宮，生能開目視，其國人惡之，及長大，果凶虐，數寇鈔，國見殘破。今王生墮地，亦能開目視人。句麗呼相似爲位，似其祖，故名之爲位宮。

Weigong was strong and brave, a skilled horseman, and good at hunting and archery. In the second year of Jingchu, when the Grand Commandant Sima Yi (King Xuan) led his forces to attack Gongsun Yuan, Gong sent his zhubu and dajia with several thousand men to assist the army. In the third year of Zhengshi, Gong raided Xi'anping, and in the fifth year he was defeated by Guanqiu Jian, Inspector of You Province. The account is in the Biography of Guanqiu Jian.

位宮有力勇，便鞍馬，善獵射。景初二年，太尉司馬宣王率衆討公孫淵，宮遣主簿大加將數千人助軍。正始三年，宮寇西安平，其五年，爲幽州刺史毌丘儉所破。語在〈儉傳〉。

Eastern Okjeo

東沃沮

Eastern Okjeo lay east of the Gaima Great Mountains of Goguryeo, and its people lived along the shore of the great sea. The land was narrow in the northeast and long in the southwest, about a thousand li in extent; to the north it bordered the Yilou and Buyeo, and to the south the Yemaek. It had five thousand households and no great ruler; each town and village had its own hereditary chief. Their language was broadly the same as that of Goguryeo, with occasional small differences. At the beginning of the Han, when Wei Man, a fugitive from Yan, became king of Joseon, the Okjeo all belonged to him.

東沃沮在高句麗蓋馬大山之東，濱大海而居。其地形東北狹，西南長，可千里，北與挹婁、夫餘，南與濊貊接。戶五千，無大君王，世世邑落，各有長帥。其言語與句麗大同，時時小異。漢初，燕亡人衛滿王朝鮮，時沃沮皆屬焉。

In the second year of Yuanfeng, Emperor Wu of Han attacked Joseon, killed Youqu, Wei Man's grandson, and divided the land into four commanderies, making the walled town of Okjeo into Xuantu Commandery. Later, harassed by the Yi and Maek, the commandery was moved to the northwest of Goguryeo; this is what is now called the old seat of Xuantu. Okjeo was returned to Lelang. Because the land was vast and remote, lying east of the Dandan Great Ridge, the Han set up a separate Chief Commandant of the Eastern Section with his seat at the walled town of Bunai, to govern the seven counties east of the ridge separately, and at this time the Okjeo all became counties.

漢武帝元封二年，伐朝鮮，殺滿孫右渠，分其地爲四郡，以沃沮城爲玄菟郡。後爲夷貊所侵，徙郡句麗西北，今所謂玄菟故府是也。沃沮還屬樂浪。漢以土地廣遠，在單單大領之東，分置東部都尉，治不耐城，別主領東七縣，時沃沮亦皆爲縣。

In the sixth year of Emperor Guangwu of Han, frontier commanderies were cut back, and the post of Chief Commandant was abolished as a result. Thereafter the chieftains of those counties were all made county marquises, and the counties of Bunai, Huali, Okjeo, and others all became marquisates. The Yi and Di attacked one another in turn, but the Marquis of the Ye of Bunai alone still maintains an Officer of Merit, a Registrar, and the other bureaus down to this day, all staffed by Ye people. The chieftains of the Okjeo towns and villages all call themselves sanlao, a relic of the old system of county-states.

漢武六年，省邊郡，都尉由此罷。其後皆以其縣中渠帥爲縣侯，不耐、華麗、沃沮諸縣皆爲侯國。夷狄更相攻伐，唯不耐濊侯至今猶置功曹、主簿諸曹，皆濊民作之。沃沮諸邑落渠帥，皆自稱三老，則故縣國之制也。

Being a small state squeezed between great ones, it eventually submitted to Goguryeo as a subject. Goguryeo in turn appointed its chiefs as shizhe to govern it jointly, and had a dajia oversee the collection of its taxes: Maek cloth, fish, salt, and seafood, carried on men's backs over a thousand li. It also had them send their beautiful women to become maids and concubines, and treated them like slaves.

國小，迫於大國之間，遂臣屬句麗。句麗復置其中大人爲使者，使相主領，又使大加統責其租稅，貊布、魚、鹽、海中食物，千里擔負致之，又送其美女以爲婢妾，遇之如奴僕。

The land was fertile, with mountains behind and the sea in front; it was suited to the five grains, and the people were good farmers. They were honest, strong, and brave by nature. Having few oxen or horses, they were adept at fighting on foot with spears. Their food and drink, dwellings, clothing, and etiquette resembled those of Goguryeo.

其土地肥美，背山向海，宜五穀，善田種。人性質直強勇，少牛馬，便持矛步戰。食飲居處，衣服禮節，有似句麗。¹

When Guanqiu Jian attacked Goguryeo, Gong, King of Goguryeo, fled to Okjeo, so the army advanced to attack it. All the Okjeo towns and villages were crushed, and more than three thousand were beheaded or captured; Gong fled to Northern Okjeo. Northern Okjeo, also called Zhigoulou, lay more than eight hundred li from Southern Okjeo; the customs of north and south were the same, and it bordered the Yilou. The Yilou liked to raid by boat, and the Northern Okjeo feared them, so in summer they always stayed in deep caves among the mountain crags to defend themselves, and only in winter, when the ice froze and the boat routes were closed, did they come down to live in their villages.

毌丘儉討句麗，句麗王宮奔沃沮，遂進師擊之。沃沮邑落皆破之，斬獲首虜三千餘級，宮奔北沃沮。北沃沮一名置溝婁，去南沃沮八百餘里，其俗南北皆同，與挹婁接。挹婁喜乘船寇鈔，北沃沮畏之，夏月恆在山岩深穴中爲守備，冬月冰凍，船道不通，乃下居村落。

Wang Qi was sent separately to pursue Gong and went to the farthest edge of its eastern border. He asked the old men there, “Are there any people east of the sea?” The old men said that some of their people had once gone fishing by boat, met a storm, and were blown along for several dozen days until they reached an island to the east. There were people on it, but their language could not be understood; their custom was always to take a young girl in the seventh month and drown her in the sea. They also said there was another state in the midst of the sea, made up only of women with no men. They further said that they had once found a cloth garment that had floated in from the sea; its body was like the clothing of a Chinese person, but its two sleeves were three zhang long.

王頎別遣追討宮，盡其東界。問其耆老「海東復有人不」？耆老言國人嘗乘船捕魚，遭風見吹數十日，東得一島，上有人，言語不相曉，其俗常以七月取童女沈海。又言有一國亦在海中，純女無男。又說得一布衣，從海中浮出，其身如中人衣，其兩袖長三丈。

They also found a wrecked boat that had drifted ashore on the waves, with a man aboard who had another face in the middle of his neck. They captured him alive, but could not communicate with him when they spoke, and he would not eat and died. All these places lie in the great sea east of Okjeo.

又得一破船，隨波出在海岸邊，有一人項中復有面，生得之，與語不相通，不食而死。其域皆在沃沮東大海中。

Yilou

挹婁

The Yilou lived more than a thousand li northeast of Buyeo, along the great sea; to the south they bordered Northern Okjeo, and no one knew how far north their land extended. Their land was mountainous and rugged. In appearance the people resembled the Buyeo, but their language differed from that of the Buyeo and Goguryeo. They had the five grains, oxen, horses, and hemp cloth. Many of them were brave and strong. They had no great ruler; each town and village had its own chief. They lived among the mountains and forests, always dwelling in pits; the pits of the great households were nine ladders deep, and the deeper the better.

挹婁在夫餘東北千餘里，濱大海，南與北沃沮接，未知其北所極。其土地多山險。其人形似夫餘，言語不與夫餘、句麗同。有五穀、牛、馬、麻布。人多勇力。無大君長，邑落各有大人。處山林之間，常穴居，大家深九梯，以多爲好。

The climate was cold, harsher than in Buyeo. It was their custom to raise pigs, eating their meat and wearing their hides. In winter they smeared pig fat on their bodies several fen thick to keep out the wind and cold. In summer they went naked, covering themselves front and back with a foot of cloth to hide their bodies. The people were unclean: they made their latrine in the middle, and the people lived in a ring around it. Their bows were four chi long, with the strength of crossbows; their arrows were made of hu wood, one chi eight cun long, with arrowheads of blue-green stone. This was the ancient state of the Sushen.

土氣寒，劇於夫餘。其俗好養豬，食其肉，衣其皮。冬以豬膏塗身，厚數分，以禦風寒。夏則裸袒，以尺布隱其前後，以蔽形體。其人不絜，作溷在中央，人圍其表居。其弓長四尺，力如弩，矢用楛，長尺八寸，青石爲鏃，古之肅慎氏之國也。

They were fine archers, and whatever they shot at, they pierced. They put poison on their arrows, and anyone struck by one died. The land produced red jade and fine sable, what is now called Yilou sable. Since the Han they had been subjects of Buyeo, but because Buyeo levied heavy taxes on them, they rebelled during the Huangchu era. Buyeo attacked them many times, but although their numbers were small, they lived among steep mountains, and the neighboring peoples feared their bows and arrows, so in the end Buyeo could not subdue them. Their people readily took to boats to raid, and the neighboring states suffered from them.

善射，射人皆入。矢施毒，人中皆死。出赤玉，好貂，今所謂挹婁貂是也。自漢已來，臣屬夫餘，夫餘責其租賦重，以黃初中叛之。夫餘數伐之，其人衆雖少，所在山險，鄰國人畏其弓矢，卒不能服也。其國便乘船寇盜，鄰國患之。

Among the Eastern Yi, food and drink were generally served in the ritual vessels called zu and dou; only the Yilou did not use them, and of all the peoples their laws and customs were the most lacking in order.

東夷飲食類皆用俎豆，唯挹婁不，法俗最無綱紀也。

Ye

濊

The Ye bordered Jinhan to the south and Goguryeo and Okjeo to the north, and extended east to the great sea; all the land east of Joseon as it is today was theirs. They had twenty thousand households. Long ago, when Jizi went to Joseon, he created the teaching of the Eight Articles to instruct the people, and though they did not shut their gates, the people did not steal. More than forty generations later, the Marquis of Joseon presumptuously took the title of king. When Chen Sheng and others rose up and the realm rebelled against Qin, tens of thousands of people from Yan, Qi, and Zhao fled to Joseon.

濊南與辰韓，北與高句麗、沃沮接，東窮大海，今朝鮮之東皆其地也。戶二萬。昔箕子既適朝鮮，作八條之教以教之，無門戶之閉而民不爲盜。其後四十餘世，朝鮮侯僭號稱王。陳勝等起，天下叛秦，燕、齊、趙民避地朝鮮數萬口。

Wei Man, a man of Yan, wearing his hair in a topknot and dressed in barbarian clothes, came once more and made himself king there. Emperor Wu of Han attacked and destroyed Joseon and divided its land into four commanderies. From then on the barbarians and the Han gradually became distinct. The Ye had no great ruler; since the Han their officials were marquises, town lords, and sanlao, who governed the lower households. Their elders had long said that they were of the same stock as Goguryeo. The people were honest and cautious by nature, with few desires; they had a sense of shame and did not beg. Their language, laws, and customs were largely the same as those of Goguryeo, but their clothing differed.

燕人衛滿，魋結夷服，復來王之。漢武帝伐滅朝鮮，分其地爲四郡。自是之後，胡、漢稍別。無大君長，自漢已來，其官有侯邑君、三老，統主下戶。其耆老舊自謂與句麗同種。其人性願愨，少嗜欲，有廉恥，不請匄。言語法俗大抵與句麗同，衣服有異。

Men and women alike wore clothes with curved collars, and men wore silver flowers several cun wide as ornaments. West of the Dandan Great Mountain Ridge the land belonged to Lelang; the seven counties east of the ridge were governed by a Chief Commandant, and their population was all Ye. Later the Chief Commandant was abolished and their chieftains were enfeoffed as marquises; the present-day Ye of Bunai are all of this stock. At the end of the Han they became subject to Goguryeo again. Their custom was to revere mountains and rivers; each mountain and river had its own allotted domain, and no one could trespass on another's.

男女衣皆著曲領，男子擊銀花廣數寸以爲飾。自單單大山領以西屬樂浪，自領以東七縣，都尉主之，皆以濊爲民。後省都尉，封其渠帥爲侯，今不耐濊皆其種也。漢末更屬句麗。其俗重山川，山川各有部分，不得妄相涉入。

People of the same surname did not marry. They had many taboos: whenever someone fell ill or died, they abandoned the old dwelling and built a new one. They had hemp cloth, and raised silkworms to make silk floss. They were skilled at observing the stars and could foretell whether the year's harvest would be rich or poor. They did not treat pearls and jade as treasures. They always sacrificed to Heaven at the festival of the tenth month, drinking, singing, and dancing day and night, and called this Wutian, “dancing to Heaven.” They also sacrificed to the tiger, worshipping it as a god. When towns and villages encroached on one another, the offender was always fined slaves, oxen, and horses as a penalty, and this was called zehuo, “exacting for the wrong.”

同姓不婚。多忌諱，疾病死亡輒損棄舊宅，更作新居。有麻布，蠶桑作綿。曉候星宿，豫知年歲豐約。不以珠玉爲寶。常用十月節祭天，晝夜飲酒歌舞，名之爲舞天，又祭虎以爲神。其邑落相侵犯，輒相罰責生口牛馬，名之爲責禍。

A murderer paid with his life. There was little banditry. They made spears three zhang long, sometimes carried by several men together, and were able to fight on foot. The Lelang sandalwood bows came from their land. Their sea yielded the skins of spotted fish, the land abounded in patterned leopards, and it also produced the “under-fruit-tree” ponies, which were presented at court in the time of Emperor Huan of Han.

殺人者償死。少寇盜。作矛長三丈，或數人共持之，能步戰。樂浪檀弓出其地。其海出班魚皮，土地饒文豹，又出果下馬，漢桓時獻之。¹

In the sixth year of Zhengshi, Liu Mao, Prefect of Lelang, and Gong Zun, Prefect of Daifang, because the Ye east of the ridge had become subject to Goguryeo, raised troops to attack them, and the Marquis of Bunai and others surrendered with their whole towns. In the eighth year they came to the palace to offer tribute, and by edict the Marquis was newly appointed King of the Ye of Bunai. He lived mingled among the common people and went to the commandery each season to pay his respects. Whenever the two commanderies had military campaigns or levies, the Ye supplied goods and labor and were treated like ordinary subjects.

正始六年，樂浪太守劉茂、帶方太守弓遵以領東濊屬句麗，興師伐之，不耐侯等舉邑降。其八年，詣闕朝貢，詔更拜不耐濊王。居處雜在民間，四時詣郡朝謁。二郡有軍征賦調，供給役使，遇之如民。

Han

韓

Han lay south of Daifang, bounded by the sea on the east and west and bordering Wa to the south, about four thousand li square. It had three divisions: the first Mahan, the second Jinhan, and the third Byeonhan. Jinhan was the ancient state of Jin. Mahan lay in the west. Its people were settled farmers who planted crops, knew sericulture, and made silk floss and cloth. Each group had its own chief; the greater ones called themselves chenzhi, and the next were called yijie. They lived scattered among the mountains and seas and had no walled towns.

韓在帶方之南，東西以海爲限，南與倭接，方可四千里。有三種，一曰馬韓，二曰辰韓，三曰弁韓。辰韓者，古之辰國也。馬韓在西。其民土著，種植，知蠶桑，作綿布。各有長帥，大者自名爲臣智，其次爲邑借，散在山海間，無城郭。

There were the states of Wonyang, Mosu, Sangoe, Soseoksaek, Daeseoksaek, Uhyumotak, Sinbungo, Baekje, Sokrobulsa, Ilhwa, Gotanja, Gori, Noram, Wolji, Jarimoro, Sowigeon, Gowon, Makro, Biri, Jeomribi, Sinheun, Jichim, Guro, Bimi, Gamhaebiri, Gopo, Chiriguk, Yeomro, Arim, Saro, Naebiri, Gamhae, Manro, Byeokbiri, Gusaodan, Illi, Bulmi, Jiban, Guso, Cheopro, Morobiri, Sinsodo, Makro, Gorap, Imsoban, Sinunsin, Yeoraebiri, Chosandobiri, Illan, Guhae, Burun, Bulsabunya, Wonji, Geonma, and Chori, more than fifty states in all.

有爰襄國、牟水國、桑外國、小石索國、大石索國、優休牟涿國、臣濆沽國、伯濟國、速盧不斯國、日華國、古誕者國、古離國、怒藍國、月支國、咨離牟盧國、素謂乾國、古爰國、莫盧國、卑離國、占離卑國、臣釁國、支侵國、狗盧國、卑彌國、監奚卑離國、古蒲國、致利鞠國、冉路國、兒林國、駟盧國、內卑離國、感奚國、萬盧國、辟卑離國、臼斯烏旦國、一離國、不彌國、支半國、狗素國、捷盧國、牟盧卑離國、臣蘇塗國、莫盧國、古臘國、臨素半國、臣雲新國、如來卑離國、楚山塗卑離國、一難國、狗奚國、不雲國、不斯濆邪國、爰池國、乾馬國、楚離國，凡五十餘國。

The large states had over ten thousand families and the small ones several thousand, over a hundred thousand households in all. The King of Jin governed from the state of Wolji. The chenzhi were sometimes given additional honorific titles: Chenyun Qianzhibao, Anxie Cuzhifen, Chenli Erbuli, and Gouxie Qinzhilian. Their official titles included Leader of the Good under Wei (Wei Shuaishan), town lord, Marquis Who Returns to Righteousness, General of the Household, Chief Commandant, and centurion (bozhang).

大國萬餘家，小國數千家，總十餘萬戶。辰王治月支國。臣智，或加優呼。臣雲遣支報，安邪踧支濆。臣離兒不例，狗邪秦支廉之號。其官有魏率善、邑君、歸義侯、中郎將、都尉、伯長。

Marquis Zhun, having presumptuously styled himself king, was attacked and overthrown by Wei Man, a fugitive from Yan. He took his attendants and palace people, fled by sea, settled in the land of Han, and called himself King of Han. His line later died out, but there are still people among the Han who maintain sacrifices to him. Under the Han dynasty, the Han people were attached to Lelang Commandery and paid court there in all four seasons.

侯准既僭號稱王，爲燕亡人衛滿所攻奪，¹將其左右宮人走入海，居韓地，自號韓王。²其後絕滅，今韓人猶有奉其祭祀者。漢時屬樂浪郡，四時朝謁。³

At the end of the reigns of Emperors Huan and Ling, the Han and Ye grew strong, the commanderies and counties could not control them, and many people drifted into the Han states. During the Jian'an era Gongsun Kang divided off the waste lands south of Tunyou County to form Daifang Commandery, and sent Gongsun Mo, Zhang Chang, and others to gather the scattered people; he raised troops to attack the Han and Ye, and the former inhabitants gradually came back. After this, Wa and Han came under Daifang. During the Jingchu era Emperor Ming secretly sent Liu Xin, Prefect of Daifang, and Xianyu Si, Prefect of Lelang, across the sea to bring the two commanderies under control; the chenzhi of the Han states were given in addition the seals and ribbons of town lords, and those next below them the seals of town elders.

桓、靈之末，韓濊強盛，郡縣不能制，民多流入韓國。建安中，公孫康分屯有縣以南荒地爲帶方郡，遣公孫模、張敞等收集遺民，興兵伐韓濊，舊民稍出，是後倭韓遂屬帶方。景初中，明帝密遣帶方太守劉昕、樂浪太守鮮于嗣越海定二郡，諸韓國臣智加賜邑君印綬，其次與邑長。

Their custom was to love robes and caps; even the commoners, when they went to the commandery to pay court, all borrowed robes and caps to wear, and more than a thousand of them wore seals, ribbons, robes, and caps of their own. The Attendant Officer Wu Lin, holding that Lelang had originally governed the Han states, split off eight states of Jinhan and gave them to Lelang. The interpreting officials garbled the message in passing it on, and the chenzhi stirred the Han to fury and attacked the Qili Camp of Daifang Commandery. At that time the Prefect Gong Zun and the Prefect of Lelang, Liu Mao, raised troops and attacked them. Gong Zun died in battle, but the two commanderies in the end destroyed the Han.

其俗好衣幘，下戶詣郡朝謁，皆假衣幘，自服印綬衣幘千有餘人。部從事吳林以樂浪本統韓國，分割辰韓八國以與樂浪，吏譯轉有異同，臣智激韓忿，攻帶方郡崎離營。時太守弓遵、樂浪太守劉茂興兵伐之，遵戰死，二郡遂滅韓。

Their customs had little in the way of order. Although the states and towns had chief leaders, the people of the villages lived intermingled and could not govern and control one another well. They had no ritual of kneeling and bowing. For dwellings they built earthen houses thatched with grass, shaped like burial mounds, with the door at the top; the whole family lived inside together, with no distinction between old and young or men and women. In burials they used an outer coffin but no inner coffin. They did not know how to ride oxen or horses, and their oxen and horses were all used up in sending off the dead. They treated beads as wealth and treasure, sometimes sewing them onto clothing as ornament, sometimes hanging them from the neck or dangling them from the ears; they did not prize gold, silver, brocade, or embroidery.

其俗少綱紀，國邑雖有主帥，邑落雜居，不能善相制禦。無跪拜之禮。居處作草屋土室，形如塚，其戶在上，舉家共在中，無長幼男女之別。其葬有槨無棺，不知乘牛馬，牛馬盡於送死。以瓔珠爲財寶，或以綴衣爲飾，或以縣頸垂耳，不以金銀錦繡爲珍。

The people were strong and brave by nature. They went bareheaded with their topknots exposed, like jiong soldiers, wore robes of hempen cloth, and on their feet wore leather sandals. Whenever there was work to be done in the state, or the authorities had them build city walls, the young, brave, and sturdy men all pierced the skin of their backs, threaded large ropes through it, and stuck poles about ten feet long into it as well; all day long they shouted and strained, but did not regard it as painful. They did this to encourage the work, and also took it as a mark of vigor. Every year, when they had finished sowing in the fifth month, they sacrificed to the ghosts and spirits, gathering in crowds to sing and dance and drink wine day and night without rest.

其人性強勇，魁頭露紒，如炅兵，衣布袍，足履革蹻蹋。其國中有所爲及官家使築城郭，諸年少勇健者，皆鑿脊皮，以大繩貫之，又以丈許木鍤之，通日嚾呼作力，不以爲痛，既以勸作，且以爲健。常以五月下種訖，祭鬼神，群聚歌舞，飲酒晝夜無休。

In their dances, several dozen people rose together and followed one another, stamping the ground, bending low and rising high, hands and feet moving in concert, with a rhythm like the bell dance. When the farm work was finished in the tenth month, they did the same again. They believed in ghosts and spirits; each state and town set up one person to preside over the sacrifices to the spirits of Heaven, who was called the Tianjun (Heavenly Lord). Each of the states also had a separate town, called the Sutu. There they set up a great pole, hung bells and drums on it, and served the ghosts and spirits. Fugitives who reached it were never handed back, and so the people were given to banditry.

其舞，數十人俱起相隨，踏地低昂，手足相應，節奏有似鐸舞。十月農功畢，亦復如之。信鬼神，國邑各立一人主祭天神，名之天君。又諸國各有別邑。名之爲蘇塗。立大木，縣鈴鼓，事鬼神。諸亡逃至其中，皆不還之，好作賊。

Their purpose in setting up the Sutu resembled that of the Buddhist stupa, but the good and evil of what was done there differed. The states in the north, near the commanderies, had some small understanding of ritual and custom, but in the distant places it was just like a gathering of convicts and slaves. They had no other rare treasures. Their birds, beasts, grasses, and trees were roughly the same as in China. The land produced large chestnuts, as big as pears, and also fine-tailed chickens whose tails were all more than five feet long. The men sometimes tattooed their bodies. There were also the Zhouhu, on a large island in the sea west of Mahan. These people were rather short, their language was not the same as that of the Han, and they all shaved their heads like the Xianbei. They wore only leather and liked to raise cattle and pigs. Their clothing had tops but no bottoms, so that they looked almost naked. They traveled back and forth by boat and traded among the Han.

其立蘇塗之義，有似浮屠，而所行善惡有異。其北方近郡諸國差曉禮俗，其遠處直如囚徒奴婢相聚。無他珍寶。禽獸草木略與中國同。出大栗，大如梨。又出細尾雞，其尾皆長五尺餘。其男子時時有文身。又有州胡在馬韓之西海中大島上，其人差短小，言語不與韓同，皆髡頭如鮮卑，但衣韋，好養牛及豬。其衣有上無下，略如裸勢。乘船往來，巿買韓中。

Jinhan lay east of Mahan. Its elders handed down from generation to generation their own account: long ago, refugees fleeing the forced labor of Qin came to the Han lands, and Mahan cut off land on its eastern border and gave it to them. They had walled stockades. Their language was not the same as that of Mahan: they called a state (guo) bang, a bow (gong) hu, a bandit (zei) kou, and passing the wine (xingjiu) xingshang. They all addressed one another as tu. In this they resembled the people of Qin, and their terms were not merely the names and words of Yan and Qi. They called the people of Lelang Acan; the people of the east called themselves "a," meaning that the people of Lelang were originally their own remnant (can). Nowadays there are those who call them Qinhan. At first there were six states, which gradually divided into twelve.

辰韓在馬韓之東，其耆老傳世，自言古之亡人避秦役來適韓國，馬韓割其東界地與之。有城柵。其言語不與馬韓同，名國爲邦，弓爲弧，賊爲寇，行酒爲行觴。相呼皆爲徒，有似秦人，非但燕、齊之名物也。名樂浪人爲阿殘；東方人名我爲阿，謂樂浪人本其殘餘人。今有名之爲秦韓者。始有六國，稍分爲十二國。

Byeonjin also comprised twelve states, and there were also many small separate towns, each with its own chieftain. The greatest were called chenzhi, the next xiance, the next fanhui, the next shaxi, and the next yijie. There were the states of Yidi, Busi, Byeonjin Milimidong, Byeonjin Jietu, Qinqi, Nanmilimidong, Byeonjin Guzimidong, Byeonjin Guchunshi, Ranxi, Byeonjin Banlu, Byeon Lenu, Junmi, Byeonjin Miwuyema, Ruzhan, Byeonjin Ganlu, Hulu, Zhouxian, Byeonjin Gouye, Byeonjin Zoucaoma, Byeonjin Anye, Byeonjin Dulu, Silu, and Youyou.

弁辰亦十二國，又有諸小別邑，各有渠帥，大者名臣智，其次有險側，次有樊濊，次有殺奚，次有邑借。有已柢國、不斯國、弁辰彌離彌凍國、弁辰接塗國、勤耆國、難彌離彌凍國、弁辰古資彌凍國、弁辰古淳是國、冉奚國、弁辰半路國、弁樂奴國、軍彌國¹、弁辰彌烏邪馬國、如湛國、弁辰甘路國、戶路國、州鮮國、弁辰狗邪國、弁辰走漕馬國、弁辰安邪國、馬延國、弁辰瀆盧國、斯盧國、優由國。

Byeonjin and Jinhan together made twenty-four states. The large states had four or five thousand households and the small ones six or seven hundred, some forty or fifty thousand households in all. Twelve of these states were subject to the King of Chen. The King of Chen was always a man of Mahan, and the office was handed down from generation to generation; the King of Chen could not set himself up as king on his own. The land was fertile and fine, well suited to growing the five grains and rice. They understood sericulture and mulberry growing, wove silk and cloth, and rode and drove oxen and horses. In the rites and customs of marriage, men and women were kept distinct.

弁、辰韓合二十四國，大國四五千家，小國六七百家，總四五萬戶。其十二國屬辰王。辰王常用馬韓人作之，世世相繼。辰王不得自立爲王。¹土地肥美，宜種五穀及稻，曉蠶桑，作縑布，乘駕牛馬。嫁娶禮俗，男女有別。

They sent off the dead with the feathers of large birds, meaning to let the dead fly aloft. The state produced iron, and the Han, the Ye, and the Wa all came to obtain it. In all their trade they used iron, just as China used coins, and they also supplied it to the two commanderies. By custom they loved singing, dancing, and drinking. They had a zither shaped like the zhu, which also produced melodies when plucked. When a child was born, they pressed its head with a stone, wanting it flattened, and today the people of Jinhan all have flattened heads. Both men and women lived close to the Wa and likewise tattooed their bodies. They were skilled at fighting on foot, and their weapons were the same as those of Mahan. By their custom, when travelers met one another, they all stopped and gave way on the road.

以大鳥羽送死，其意欲使死者飛揚。¹國出鐵，韓、濊、倭皆從取之。諸巿買皆用鐵，如中國用錢，又以供給二郡。俗喜歌舞飲酒。有瑟，其形似築，彈之亦有音曲。兒生，便以石厭其頭，欲其褊。今辰韓人皆褊頭。男女近倭，亦文身。便步戰，兵仗與馬韓同。其俗，行者相逢，皆住讓路。

Byeonjin lived intermingled with Jinhan and likewise had walled towns. Their clothing and dwellings were the same as those of Jinhan. Their language, laws, and customs were similar to one another, but they differed in their sacrifices to ghosts and spirits, and they always placed their stoves on the west side of the door. Its state of Dulu shared a border with the Wa. The twelve states also had kings, and their people were all large of build. Their clothing was clean, and they wore their hair long. They also wove fine cloth of broad width. Their laws and customs were especially strict.

弁辰與辰韓雜居，亦有城郭。衣服居處與辰韓同。言語法俗相似，祠祭鬼神有異，施灶皆在戶西。其瀆盧國與倭接界。十二國亦有王，其人形皆大。衣服絜清，長髮。亦作廣幅細布。法俗特嚴峻。

The Wa

倭人

The Wa people lived in the midst of the great sea southeast of Daifang, forming their states and towns on mountainous islands.

倭人在帶方東南大海之中，依山島爲國邑。

Formerly there were more than a hundred states, some of which came to court in the time of Han; now thirty states maintained contact through envoys and interpreters.

舊百餘國，漢時有朝見者，今使譯所通三十國。

To go from the commandery to Wa, one traveled by water along the coast, passing through the Han states, heading now south, now east, until reaching the state of Gouye-Han on its northern shore, a distance of more than seven thousand li. Then for the first time one crossed a sea, and after more than a thousand li reached the state of Tsushima. Its chief official was called the hiko and his deputy the hinamori.

從郡至倭，循海岸水行，歷韓國，乍南乍東，到其北岸狗邪韓國，七千餘里，始渡一海，千餘里至對馬國。其大官曰卑狗，副曰卑奴母離。

They lived on a remote island some four hundred li square. The land was mountainous and rugged, with much deep forest, and the roads were like the trails of birds and deer.

所居絶島，方可四百餘里，土地山險，多深林，道路如禽鹿徑。

There were more than a thousand households. There were no good fields; they lived on seafood and traveled north and south by boat to buy grain.

有千餘戶，無良田，食海物自活，乘船南北市糴。

Again one crossed a sea to the south for more than a thousand li, a sea called the Hanhai, and reached the state of Ichidai. Its official was likewise called the hiko and his deputy the hinamori. It was some three hundred li square.

又南渡一海千餘里，名曰瀚海，至一大國，官亦曰卑狗，副曰卑奴母離，方可三百里。

There were many thickets of bamboo and trees, and some three thousand households.

多竹木叢林，有三千許家。

There was some farmland, but tilling it still did not yield enough to eat, so they too traveled north and south to buy grain.

差有田地，耕田猶不足食，亦南北市糴。

Crossing another sea for more than a thousand li, one reached the state of Matsura, which had more than four thousand households. They lived along the edge of the mountains and the sea, and the grass and trees grew so thick that when walking one could not see the person ahead.

又渡一海，千餘里至末盧國，有四千餘戶，濵山海居，草木茂盛，行不見前人。

They loved catching fish and abalone, and whether the water was deep or shallow, they all dived down to take them.

好捕魚鰒，水無深淺，皆沉沒取之。

Traveling southeast overland for five hundred li, one arrived at the state of Ito. Its official was called the niki, and its deputies the shimoko and the hekoko.

東南陸行五百里，到伊都國，官曰爾支，副曰泄謨觚、柄渠觚。

There were more than a thousand households. It had had kings for generations, all of whom were subject to the Queen's state. It was where the envoys of the commandery always stopped when coming and going.

有千餘戶，世有王，皆統屬女王國，郡使往來常所駐。

A hundred li to the southeast lay the state of Na. Its official was called the shimako and his deputy the hinamori, and it had more than twenty thousand households.

東南至奴國百里，官曰兕馬觚，副曰卑奴母離，有二萬餘戶。

Traveling east for a hundred li, one reached the state of Fumi. Its official was called the tamo and his deputy the hinamori, and it had more than a thousand households.

東行至不彌國百里，官曰多模，副曰卑奴母離，有千餘家。

To the south, twenty days' travel by water, lay the state of Tsuma. Its official was called the mimi and his deputy the miminari, and it had some fifty thousand households or more.

南至投馬國，水行二十日，官曰彌彌，副曰彌彌那利，可五萬餘戶。

To the south lay the state of Yamaichi (Yamatai), where the Queen had her capital, ten days' travel by water and a month by land.

南至邪馬壹國，女王之所都，水行十日，陸行一月。

Its officials were the ikima, next the mimasho, next the mimakaki, and next the nakate. It had some seventy thousand households or more.

官有伊支馬，次曰彌馬升，次曰彌馬獲支，次曰奴佳鞮，可七萬餘戶。

For the lands north of the Queen's state, their household numbers and distances could be roughly recorded, but the other neighboring states were so remote that no details could be obtained.

自女王國以北，其戶數道里可得略載，其餘旁國遠絕，不可得詳。

Next there was the state of Shima, then the state of Ihaki, then the state of Iya, then the state of Toki, then the state of Mina, then the state of Kokoto, then the state of Fuko, then the state of Sona, then the state of Tsuso, then the state of Suna, then the state of Koyu, then the state of Kanasuna, then the state of Ki, then the state of Igo, then the state of Kina, then the state of Yama, then the state of Kuji, then the state of Hari, then the state of Kii, then the state of Una, and then the state of Na. Here the Queen's domain came to an end.

次有斯馬國，次有已百支國，次有伊邪國，次有都支國，次有彌奴國，次有好古都國，次有不呼國，次有姐奴國，次有對蘇國，次有蘇奴國，次有呼邑國，次有華奴蘇奴國，次有鬼國，次有爲吾國，次有鬼奴國，次有邪馬國，次有躬臣國，次有巴利國，次有支惟國，次有烏奴國，次有奴國，此女王境界所盡。

South of it lay the state of Kona, where a man was king; among its officials was the kukochihiko. It was not subject to the Queen.

其南有狗奴國，男子爲王，其官有狗古智卑狗，不屬女王。

From the commandery to the Queen's state was more than twelve thousand li.

自郡至女王國，萬二千餘里。

The men, young and old alike, all tattooed their faces and bodies.

男子無大小皆黥面文身。

From ancient times, whenever their envoys came to China, they all called themselves Grandees.

自古以來，其使詣中國，皆自稱大夫。

When a son of Shaokang of the Xia sovereigns was enfeoffed at Kuaiji, he cut his hair short and tattooed his body to ward off harm from the flood dragons.

夏后少康之子，封於會稽，斷髮文身，以避蛟龍之害。

Today the Wa who live by the water love diving to catch fish and clams, and their tattoos too were originally meant to ward off large fish and waterfowl, though later they gradually became ornament.

今倭水人好沈沒捕魚蛤，文身亦以厭大魚水禽，後稍以爲飾。

The tattoos differed from state to state, some on the left and some on the right, some large and some small, with distinctions according to rank.

諸國文身各異，或左或右，或大或小，尊卑有差。

Reckoning by the distance, it would lie east of Kuaiji and Dongzhi.

計其道里，當在會稽、東治之東。

Their customs were not licentious. The men all left their topknots exposed and bound their heads with tree-cotton cloth.

其風俗不淫，男子皆露紒，以木緜招頭。

Their clothing was made of broad lengths of cloth, simply tied together and joined, with almost no sewing.

其衣橫幅，但結束相連，略無縫。

The women let their hair hang loose or bent it up into a knot. They made garments like single-layered coverlets, cut a hole in the middle, and put their heads through it to wear them.

婦人被髮屈紒，作衣如單被，穿其中央，貫頭衣之。

They grew rice, ramie, and hemp, raised silkworms and mulberries, and spun and twisted thread, producing fine ramie cloth, silk, and silk floss.

種禾稻、紵麻，蠶桑、緝績，出細紵、縑緜。

In their land there were no oxen, horses, tigers, leopards, sheep, or magpies.

其地無牛、馬、虎、豹、羊、鵲。

For weapons they used spears, shields, and wooden bows.

兵用矛、楯、木弓。

Their wooden bows were short below and long above, and their bamboo arrows had iron or bone heads. What they had and lacked was the same as in Dan'er and Zhuya.

木弓短下長上，竹箭或鐵鏃或骨鏃，所有無與儋耳、朱崖同。

The land of Wa was warm; winter and summer they ate raw vegetables, and all went barefoot.

倭地溫暖，冬夏食生菜，皆徒跣。

They had houses, and parents and brothers slept and rested in separate places. They smeared their bodies with vermilion, as the Chinese use face powder.

有屋室，父母兄弟卧息異處，以朱丹塗其身體，如中國用粉也。

For food and drink they used bamboo and wooden serving vessels and ate with their hands.

食飲用籩豆，手食。

When someone died, there was an inner coffin but no outer coffin, and earth was heaped up to make a mound.

其死，有棺無槨，封土作冢。

At first, the body was kept for mourning for more than ten days, during which time no meat was eaten; the chief mourner wailed and wept, while the others came to sing, dance, and drink wine.

始死，停喪十餘日，當時不食肉，喪主哭泣，他人就歌舞飲酒。

When the burial was over, the whole family went into the water to bathe, much like the purifying ablution of the lian rite.

已葬，舉家詣水中澡浴，以如練沐。

Whenever they crossed the sea to come to China, they always had one man go without combing his hair or removing his nits and lice;

其行來渡海詣中國，恒使一人，不梳頭，不去蟣蝨。

his clothes were left grimy and filthy, and he ate no meat and kept away from women,

衣服垢汚，不食肉，不近婦人。

like a man in mourning. He was called the “jisai” (keeper of abstinence).

如喪人，名之爲「持衰」。

If the journey went well and safely, they jointly rewarded him with slaves and goods; but if anyone fell ill or met with violent harm, they wanted to kill him at once, saying that the jisai had not been careful in his abstinence.

若行者吉善，共顧其生口、財物；若有疾病，遭暴害，便欲殺之，謂其持衰不謹。

The land produced pearls and green jade, and its mountains had cinnabar. Among its trees were the nan, the zhu, the camphor, the rouli, the toujiang, the wuhao, and the sweetgum; among its bamboos were the xiaogan and the taozhi. There were ginger, tangerines, pepper, and myoga ginger, but they did not know how to use them for flavoring.

出真珠、靑玉，其山有丹，其木有柟、杼、豫樟、楺櫪、投橿、烏號、楓香，其竹篠簳、桃支，有薑、橘、椒、蘘荷，不知以爲滋味。

There were macaques and black pheasants.

有獼猴、黑雉。

By their custom, whenever they undertook some matter or set out on a journey, or had anything to say or do, they burned bones to divine, and so foretold good or ill fortune.

其俗舉事行來，有所云爲，輙灼骨而卜，以占吉凶。

They first announced what was being divined, in words like those of the Chinese method of charging the tortoise, and then read the omen from the cracks made by the fire.

先告所卜，其辭如令龜法，視火坼占兆。

When they gathered, sitting or rising, there was no distinction between father and son or between men and women. By nature the people loved wine.

其會同坐起，父子男女無別，人性嗜酒。

When they met a great man, they showed respect simply by clapping their hands in place of kneeling and bowing.

見大人所敬，但搏手以當跪拜。

Their people lived long, some to a hundred years and some to eighty or ninety.

其人壽考，或百年，或八、九十年。

By their custom, the great men of the state all had four or five wives, and even some commoners had two or three.

其俗，國大人皆四五婦，下戶或二三婦。

The women were not licentious or jealous. There was no theft, and few quarrels or lawsuits.

婦人不淫，不妬忌。不盜竊，少諍訟。

When someone broke the law, in light cases his wife and children were confiscated, and in grave cases his household and whole clan were wiped out. High and low each had their proper order of rank, sufficient for them to serve one another as subjects.

其犯法，輕者沒其妻子，重者滅其門戶及宗族尊卑，各有差序，足相臣服。

They collected taxes and levies.

收租賦。

There were storehouses, and every state had a market where they exchanged what they had for what they lacked, with the Great Wa (dawo) appointed to oversee them.

有邸閣，國國有市，交易有無，使大倭監之。

North of the Queen's state, a single Great Commander (yidashuai) was specially appointed to inspect the various states, and the states feared and dreaded him.

自女王國以北，特置一大率，檢察諸國，諸國畏憚之。

He always kept his seat in the state of Ito, and within the country he was like an Inspector.

常治伊都國，於國中有如刺史。

Whenever the ruler sent envoys to the capital, to Daifang Commandery, or to the various Han states, or when envoys of the commandery came to the land of Wa, he always went to the harbor to search and inspect everything, and forwarded the documents and gifts to the Queen without any error.

王遣使詣京都、帶方郡、諸韓國，及郡使倭國，皆臨津搜露，傳送文書、賜遺之物詣女王，不得差錯。

When a commoner met a great man on the road, he would hesitate and back away into the grass.

下戶與大人相逢道路，逡巡入草。

When conveying words or explaining a matter, they would squat or kneel with both hands on the ground as a sign of respect.

傳辭說事，或蹲或跪，兩手據地，爲之恭敬。

The sound they made in answering was “yi,” which was like saying “so it is” or “yes.”

對應聲曰「噫」，比如「然」「諾」。

This country too had originally had men as kings, but after seventy or eighty years the land of Wa fell into disorder and its people attacked one another for years. At last they jointly set up a woman as ruler, named Himiko. She served the way of ghosts and was able to bewitch the multitude.

其國本亦以男子爲王，住七八十年，倭國亂，相攻伐歷年，乃共立一女子爲王，名曰卑彌呼，事鬼道，能惑衆。

She was already of mature age but had no husband, and a younger brother helped her govern the country.

年已長大，無夫壻，有男弟佐治國。

Since she had become ruler, few had seen her.

自爲王以來，少有見者。

She had a thousand maidservants attending her, and only one man served her food and drink and went in and out conveying her words.

以婢千人自侍，唯有男子一人給飲食，傳辭出入。

Her palace and towers were strictly enclosed by walled stockades, and armed men always stood guard.

居處宮室樓觀，城柵嚴設，常有人持兵守衛。

More than a thousand li east of the Queen's state, across the sea, there were more states, all of the Wa race.

女王國東渡海千餘里，復有國，皆倭種。

There was also the Land of Dwarfs to its south, whose people were three or four feet tall, more than four thousand li from the Queen. There were also the Land of the Naked and the Land of Black Teeth, farther to the southeast, which could be reached in a year's voyage by ship.

又有侏儒國在其南，人長三四尺，去女王四千餘里，又有裸國、黑齒國，復在其東南，船行一年可至。

Inquiring about the land of Wa, one learned that it lay far off on islands in the middle of the sea, some separated and some connected, with a circuit of some five thousand li.

參問倭地，絕在海中洲島之上，或絕或連，周旋可五千餘里。

In the sixth month of the second year of Jingchu, the Queen of Wa sent the Grandee Nashime and others to the commandery, asking to go to the Emperor to pay court and present tribute. The Prefect Liu Xia sent officials to escort them to the capital.

景初二年六月，倭女王遣大夫難升米等詣郡，求詣天子朝獻，太守劉夏遣吏將送詣京都。

In the twelfth month of that year, an edict was sent in reply to the Queen of Wa: “We issue this edict to Himiko, King of Wa, Friend of Wei. The Prefect of Daifang, Liu Xia, has sent an envoy to escort your Grandee Nashime and your deputy envoy Toshi Gori, who have arrived bearing your offering of four male and six female slaves and two bolts and two zhang of patterned cloth.

其年十二月，詔書報倭女王曰：「制詔親魏倭王卑彌呼：帶方太守劉夏遣使送汝大夫難升米、次使都市牛利，奉汝所獻男生口四人，女生口六人，班布二匹二丈，以到。

“Though you dwell exceedingly far away, you have sent envoys with tribute. This is your loyalty and filial devotion, and We hold you very dear.

汝所在踰遠，乃遣使貢獻，是汝之忠孝，我甚哀汝。

“We now make you King of Wa, Friend of Wei, and grant you a gold seal with a purple ribbon, which has been sealed and entrusted to the Prefect of Daifang to confer upon you.

今以汝爲親魏倭王，假金印紫綬，裝封付帶方太守，假授汝。

“Pacify and care for the people of your race, and strive to be dutiful and obedient.

其綏撫種人，勉爲孝順。

“Your envoys Nashime and Gori have crossed a great distance and toiled on the road. We now make Nashime General of the Household Who Leads the Good and Gori Colonel Who Leads the Good, grant them silver seals with blue ribbons, and have received them in audience, rewarded them for their labors, and sent them home.

汝來使難升米、牛利涉遠，道路勤勞，今以難升米爲率善中郎將，牛利爲率善校尉，假銀印靑綬，引見勞賜遣還。

“We now repay the value of your tribute with five bolts of brocade with interlaced dragons on a crimson ground, ten pieces of crimson-ground crinkled wool with a millet pattern, fifty bolts of madder-red cloth, and fifty bolts of dark blue cloth.

今以絳地交龍錦五匹，絳地縐粟罽十張，蒨絳五十匹，紺靑五十匹，答汝所獻貢直。

“In addition We specially bestow on you three bolts of brocade with a hooked pattern on a dark blue ground, five pieces of fine wool with a variegated floral pattern, fifty bolts of white silk, eight taels of gold, two swords five feet long, a hundred bronze mirrors, and fifty jin each of pearls and red lead, all sealed and entrusted to Nashime and Gori; when they return, receive them according to the list.

又特賜汝紺地句文錦三匹，細班華罽五張，白絹五十匹，金八兩，五尺刀二口，銅鏡百枚，真珠、鉛丹各五十斤，皆裝封付難升米、牛利還到録受。

“You may show them all to the people of your country, so that they know that Our state holds you dear and has therefore solemnly bestowed these fine things upon you.”

悉可以示汝國中人，使知國家哀汝，故鄭重賜汝好物也。」

In the first year of Zhengshi, the Prefect Gong Zun sent the Colonel Who Establishes the Center, Ti Jun, and others bearing the edict, seal, and ribbon to the land of Wa to invest its ruler as King of Wa, along with the gold, silks, brocades, woolens, swords, mirrors, and colored goods bestowed by the edict. The King of Wa thereupon sent an envoy with a memorial giving thanks for the gracious edict.

正始元年，太守弓遵遣建中校尉梯儁等奉詔書印綬詣倭國，拜假倭王，並齎詔賜金帛、錦罽、刀鏡、采物，倭王因使上表答謝恩詔。

In the fourth year, the King of Wa again sent eight envoys, including the Grandees Iseki and Yayako, to present slaves, Wa brocade, crimson and blue silk, padded garments, silk and cloth, cinnabar wood, fu (𤝔), and short bows and arrows.

其四年，倭王復遣使大夫伊聲耆、掖邪狗等八人，上獻生口、倭錦、絳靑縑、緜衣、帛布、丹木、𤝔、短弓矢。

Yayako and the others were all invested with the seal and ribbon of General of the Household Who Leads the Good.

掖邪狗等壹拜率善中郎將印綬。

In the sixth year, an edict bestowed a yellow banner on Nashime of Wa, entrusting it to the commandery to confer on him.

其六年，詔賜倭難升米黃幢，付郡假授。

In the eighth year, the Prefect Wang Qi arrived at his post.

其八年，太守王頎到官。

The Queen of Wa, Himiko, had long been on bad terms with the male king of the state of Kona, Himikuko, and she sent Sashi, Uetsu, and others of Wa to the commandery to explain how they were attacking each other.

倭女王卑彌呼與狗奴國男王卑彌弓呼素不和，遣倭載斯、烏越等詣郡，說相攻擊狀。

The commandery sent the Clerk of the Frontier Bureau, Zhang Zheng, and others, bringing the edict and the yellow banner to confer on Nashime, and they drew up a proclamation to admonish them.

遣塞曹掾史張政等，因齎詔書、黃幢，拜假難升米爲檄告諭之。

When Himiko died, a great mound was built, more than a hundred paces across, and more than a hundred male and female slaves were buried with her.

卑彌呼以死，大作冢，徑百餘步，徇葬者奴婢百餘人。

A male king was set up in her place, but the country would not submit, and they slaughtered one another; more than a thousand people were killed at that time.

更立男王，國中不服，更相誅殺，當時殺千餘人。

Then Himiko's kinswoman Iyo was set up; she became ruler at the age of thirteen, and the country was at last settled.

復立卑彌呼宗女壹與，年十三爲王，國中遂定。

Zhang Zheng and the others admonished Iyo with the proclamation, and Iyo sent twenty men, including the Wa Grandee and General of the Household Who Leads the Good, Yayako, to escort Zhang Zheng and the others home. They went on to the court, where they presented thirty male and female slaves and offered as tribute five thousand white pearls, two large curved beads of blue stone, and twenty bolts of assorted brocade of unusual patterns.

政等以檄告喻壹與，壹與遣倭大夫率善中郎將掖邪狗等二十人送政等還，因詣臺，獻上男女生口三十人，貢白珠五千孔、靑大句珠二枚、異文雜錦二十匹。

The Western Rong

西戎¹²

Appraisal

史評

Appraisal: The Records of the Grand Historian and the Book of Han wrote of Chaoxian and the two Yue, and the historians of the Eastern Capital compiled records of the Western Qiang. In the time of Wei the Xiongnu at last declined, and there were in their place the Wuhuan and the Xianbei, and even the Eastern Yi, with whom envoys and interpreters were in contact from time to time. Records follow events; how could they ever be fixed and unchanging!

評曰：《史》《漢》著朝鮮、兩越，東京撰錄西羌。魏世匈奴遂衰，更有烏丸、鮮卑，爰及東夷，使譯時通，記述隨事，豈常也哉！